Chapter 4 Steeper Ladders, Narrower Gates
Cognitive partitioning refers to the way education and job choices are creating a divide in society based on intelligence. Economic reasons are the main cause of this divide. As better-educated people earn more in high-IQ jobs, the wage gap between high-IQ and low-IQ jobs is growing. The cognitive elite, or the smartest individuals, are becoming more separated from others because they work together and live near similar-minded people. As access to education improves, differences in intelligence are starting to be linked more to genetics rather than just environment. Additionally, people with similar intelligence tend to marry each other, which strengthens social classes. Overall, these patterns indicate that the gap in cognitive abilities and social separation will likely keep increasing, raising questions about the future of American democracy.
The Changing Market for Ability
The increasing value of intelligence in the job market is shaping economic divisions in society. Smart individuals are being recruited more effectively into colleges and are generally more productive at work, leading to a rising economic gap between those with high cognitive abilities and the rest of the population. This trend has been evident since the 1950s when salaries for engineers skyrocketed compared to manufacturing employees. Engineers' salaries nearly doubled from 1953 to 1961, whereas manufacturing workers saw only a modest increase in wages. By the end of the 1980s, the income disparity had widened significantly, with engineers earning about $72,000 a year compared to manufacturing employees at $23,000.
During the 1980s, the interpretations of the economy varied. While household income increased for everyone due to more dual-income families and low unemployment, real wages presented a different picture. White-collar workers generally saw wage growth, while blue-collar workers' wages fell. Data showed a significant rise in income for high-wage earners, while lower-wage workers remained stagnant. Cognitive ability has been recognized as a key factor in these changes.
Education plays a major role in wage differences. Over the last twenty-five years, real wages for college-educated workers rose considerably compared to those with less education. However, the 1970s saw a dip in wages for educated workers due to oversupply, which reversed in the 1980s when their wages began to climb again. Young men entering the job market after college saw better opportunities, while those with only high school diplomas faced wage declines. The job market seemed to reevaluate education, favoring educated workers over those without a college background.
Several factors might explain the rising income gap between those with higher education and those without. Changes in technology, for example, have displaced many low-skill jobs while increasing demand for educated individuals who can adapt to new roles. Additionally, as companies grow larger, the demand for skilled individuals who can handle complex tasks rises, further elevating the value of intelligence in the job market.
Residual wage variation, which is unexplained income variation that can't be attributed solely to education or other factors, has also been on the rise. This suggests that intelligence may be part of what determines higher wages. Studies have indicated a growing correlation between intelligence and income, even among those with the same education or work experience. High IQ individuals earn significantly more, even in high-IQ jobs.
The increasing complexity of jobs and society has made intelligence more valuable. As companies face new challenges and regulations, individuals who can navigate these complexities effectively are sought after, with their salaries reflecting that value.
Consequently, smart individuals tend to earn high incomes, particularly in high-IQ occupations, setting themselves apart from those with lower IQs and leading to a concentration of wealth and prosperity among the cognitively elite. Studies show a concerning trend regarding economic mobility across generations, indicating that the correlation between fathers' and sons' incomes is growing stronger. Individuals are likely to remain in similar income brackets as their parents, partly due to inherited cognitive ability, which plays a significant role in determining economic success.
The ongoing trends suggest that the labor market will increasingly reward intelligence, leading to wider income disparities unless there are significant changes. This creates a challenging environment for those without high cognitive abilities, as their economic prospects may not improve significantly despite educational efforts. Societal complexity and the rapid evolution of job requirements seem set to continue placing a premium on intelligence.
Cognitive Sorting Through Physical Separation
Cognitive sorting in education and work leads to people with similar cognitive abilities living and working together. In workplaces like manufacturing plants, there are many different jobs that require varying levels of thinking skills, which allows for some mixing among employees. However, in office settings, where jobs typically require higher cognitive abilities, the separation becomes more obvious. Executives mostly interact with others who have similar skills and rarely engage with lower-skilled workers.
This trend is even stronger in specialized workplaces, such as law firms, where the differences in cognitive abilities among job categories are significant. Attorneys usually possess much higher cognitive abilities than support staff, which creates clear divisions in the workplace. Many high-skill jobs now let people work in isolated environments with others who are similarly skilled, further separating them from those with lower cognitive abilities.
Residential segregation happens when people choose to live in neighborhoods that reflect their social status. This often means that factory workers and executives live in different areas, with wealthy individuals moving around more easily to find desirable neighborhoods. This separation influences how children are raised since they are less likely to grow up in a mixed community.
As cities grow, children from different backgrounds find it harder to mix. Families with money often leave urban areas for suburbs with better schools or send their kids to private schools, which deepens the divide. As a result, talented children from working-class neighborhoods may miss out on educational opportunities because they are less likely to be in school with peers of various cognitive abilities.
Genetic Partitioning
The heritability of IQ refers to how much of a person's intelligence comes from their genes. This is important because it can help explain why some people are more successful in life than others. If intelligence is inherited and leads to success—like getting a good job and earning more money—then social status can also be affected by these inherited traits. Research shows that a significant part of IQ is genetic, with estimates stating that between 40 and 80 percent of the differences in intelligence among people are due to their genetics. A common estimate is that about 60 percent of IQ is influenced by genes, meaning that 40 percent comes from environmental factors, such as education and upbringing.
Heritability looks at the differences in IQ across a group of people rather than measuring an individual’s IQ. When opportunities and environments become more equal for everyone, heritability tends to increase, causing family members to be more alike in their IQ scores. Many heritability estimates come from studies of twins, especially identical twins who were raised apart. These studies often show very high heritability rates for IQ.
As people get older, the role of genetics in assessing IQ usually grows stronger. This means that for adults, their genetic background plays a bigger part in their IQ. Additionally, most of the differences in IQ that can’t be explained by genetics are usually linked to unique environmental factors that each person experiences, rather than factors shared with their family. This indicates that inherited intelligence is likely to be more important for life outcomes, even in situations where everyone has similar opportunities for success.
Assortative mating is the concept that people tend to marry others who have similar IQs. Studies find that the IQ levels of husbands and wives are often closely related. If the pattern of marrying partners with similar intelligence stays the same, then the average IQ of their children will likely be higher because overall intelligence in educated groups has increased over time. The trend of marrying someone with a similar IQ has likely increased, especially among those with higher intelligence.
Factors contributing to this trend include the feminist movement, which has helped intelligent women access higher education and careers more than before. This means that these women are more likely to meet and marry intelligent men. Also, social attitudes have shifted, making it more acceptable for men to appreciate intelligence in women, leading to more couples who are equally smart.
In conclusion, the relationship between the heritability of IQ, social standing, and assortative mating illustrates how intelligence, success, and genetics are connected in society. It suggests that as the importance of genetics grows, inherited intelligence will have a greater influence on life outcomes. At the same time, environmental factors are still significant but may have less impact as opportunities for success become more equal for everyone.
The Limits of Churning
American society has often been dynamic, with new groups coming in, rising up, and achieving success while others from established wealthy families may lose their status. This creates a vibrant society where people can move up and down the social ladder. However, there are worries that a small group of highly intelligent people, or the cognitive elite, is becoming more powerful and like a separate class.
Surveys show that while many smart people do not finish college, a large number in the highest IQ levels do earn degrees. Among those who don't graduate, many still have good jobs or high incomes, suggesting they can succeed without a degree. Though some highly intelligent individuals might not reach success due to personal or social challenges, this group is small and shrinking.
Current trends indicate that talented young people are finding opportunities in elite colleges, leading to the cognitive elite becoming wealthier and more separated from others in where they live and who they marry. This could lead to a more connected elite that shares similar political interests, raising concerns about their influence on society and government in the future.
Cognitive partitioning refers to the way education and job choices are creating a divide in society based on intelligence. Economic reasons are the main cause of this divide. As better-educated people earn more in high-IQ jobs, the wage gap between high-IQ and low-IQ jobs is growing. The cognitive elite, or the smartest individuals, are becoming more separated from others because they work together and live near similar-minded people. As access to education improves, differences in intelligence are starting to be linked more to genetics rather than just environment. Additionally, people with similar intelligence tend to marry each other, which strengthens social classes. Overall, these patterns indicate that the gap in cognitive abilities and social separation will likely keep increasing, raising questions about the future of American democracy.
The Changing Market for Ability
The increasing value of intelligence in the job market is shaping economic divisions in society. Smart individuals are being recruited more effectively into colleges and are generally more productive at work, leading to a rising economic gap between those with high cognitive abilities and the rest of the population. This trend has been evident since the 1950s when salaries for engineers skyrocketed compared to manufacturing employees. Engineers' salaries nearly doubled from 1953 to 1961, whereas manufacturing workers saw only a modest increase in wages. By the end of the 1980s, the income disparity had widened significantly, with engineers earning about $72,000 a year compared to manufacturing employees at $23,000.
During the 1980s, the interpretations of the economy varied. While household income increased for everyone due to more dual-income families and low unemployment, real wages presented a different picture. White-collar workers generally saw wage growth, while blue-collar workers' wages fell. Data showed a significant rise in income for high-wage earners, while lower-wage workers remained stagnant. Cognitive ability has been recognized as a key factor in these changes.
Education plays a major role in wage differences. Over the last twenty-five years, real wages for college-educated workers rose considerably compared to those with less education. However, the 1970s saw a dip in wages for educated workers due to oversupply, which reversed in the 1980s when their wages began to climb again. Young men entering the job market after college saw better opportunities, while those with only high school diplomas faced wage declines. The job market seemed to reevaluate education, favoring educated workers over those without a college background.
Several factors might explain the rising income gap between those with higher education and those without. Changes in technology, for example, have displaced many low-skill jobs while increasing demand for educated individuals who can adapt to new roles. Additionally, as companies grow larger, the demand for skilled individuals who can handle complex tasks rises, further elevating the value of intelligence in the job market.
Residual wage variation, which is unexplained income variation that can't be attributed solely to education or other factors, has also been on the rise. This suggests that intelligence may be part of what determines higher wages. Studies have indicated a growing correlation between intelligence and income, even among those with the same education or work experience. High IQ individuals earn significantly more, even in high-IQ jobs.
The increasing complexity of jobs and society has made intelligence more valuable. As companies face new challenges and regulations, individuals who can navigate these complexities effectively are sought after, with their salaries reflecting that value.
Consequently, smart individuals tend to earn high incomes, particularly in high-IQ occupations, setting themselves apart from those with lower IQs and leading to a concentration of wealth and prosperity among the cognitively elite. Studies show a concerning trend regarding economic mobility across generations, indicating that the correlation between fathers' and sons' incomes is growing stronger. Individuals are likely to remain in similar income brackets as their parents, partly due to inherited cognitive ability, which plays a significant role in determining economic success.
The ongoing trends suggest that the labor market will increasingly reward intelligence, leading to wider income disparities unless there are significant changes. This creates a challenging environment for those without high cognitive abilities, as their economic prospects may not improve significantly despite educational efforts. Societal complexity and the rapid evolution of job requirements seem set to continue placing a premium on intelligence.
Cognitive Sorting Through Physical Separation
Cognitive sorting in education and work leads to people with similar cognitive abilities living and working together. In workplaces like manufacturing plants, there are many different jobs that require varying levels of thinking skills, which allows for some mixing among employees. However, in office settings, where jobs typically require higher cognitive abilities, the separation becomes more obvious. Executives mostly interact with others who have similar skills and rarely engage with lower-skilled workers.
This trend is even stronger in specialized workplaces, such as law firms, where the differences in cognitive abilities among job categories are significant. Attorneys usually possess much higher cognitive abilities than support staff, which creates clear divisions in the workplace. Many high-skill jobs now let people work in isolated environments with others who are similarly skilled, further separating them from those with lower cognitive abilities.
Residential segregation happens when people choose to live in neighborhoods that reflect their social status. This often means that factory workers and executives live in different areas, with wealthy individuals moving around more easily to find desirable neighborhoods. This separation influences how children are raised since they are less likely to grow up in a mixed community.
As cities grow, children from different backgrounds find it harder to mix. Families with money often leave urban areas for suburbs with better schools or send their kids to private schools, which deepens the divide. As a result, talented children from working-class neighborhoods may miss out on educational opportunities because they are less likely to be in school with peers of various cognitive abilities.
Genetic Partitioning
The heritability of IQ refers to how much of a person's intelligence comes from their genes. This is important because it can help explain why some people are more successful in life than others. If intelligence is inherited and leads to success—like getting a good job and earning more money—then social status can also be affected by these inherited traits. Research shows that a significant part of IQ is genetic, with estimates stating that between 40 and 80 percent of the differences in intelligence among people are due to their genetics. A common estimate is that about 60 percent of IQ is influenced by genes, meaning that 40 percent comes from environmental factors, such as education and upbringing.
Heritability looks at the differences in IQ across a group of people rather than measuring an individual’s IQ. When opportunities and environments become more equal for everyone, heritability tends to increase, causing family members to be more alike in their IQ scores. Many heritability estimates come from studies of twins, especially identical twins who were raised apart. These studies often show very high heritability rates for IQ.
As people get older, the role of genetics in assessing IQ usually grows stronger. This means that for adults, their genetic background plays a bigger part in their IQ. Additionally, most of the differences in IQ that can’t be explained by genetics are usually linked to unique environmental factors that each person experiences, rather than factors shared with their family. This indicates that inherited intelligence is likely to be more important for life outcomes, even in situations where everyone has similar opportunities for success.
Assortative mating is the concept that people tend to marry others who have similar IQs. Studies find that the IQ levels of husbands and wives are often closely related. If the pattern of marrying partners with similar intelligence stays the same, then the average IQ of their children will likely be higher because overall intelligence in educated groups has increased over time. The trend of marrying someone with a similar IQ has likely increased, especially among those with higher intelligence.
Factors contributing to this trend include the feminist movement, which has helped intelligent women access higher education and careers more than before. This means that these women are more likely to meet and marry intelligent men. Also, social attitudes have shifted, making it more acceptable for men to appreciate intelligence in women, leading to more couples who are equally smart.
In conclusion, the relationship between the heritability of IQ, social standing, and assortative mating illustrates how intelligence, success, and genetics are connected in society. It suggests that as the importance of genetics grows, inherited intelligence will have a greater influence on life outcomes. At the same time, environmental factors are still significant but may have less impact as opportunities for success become more equal for everyone.
The Limits of Churning
American society has often been dynamic, with new groups coming in, rising up, and achieving success while others from established wealthy families may lose their status. This creates a vibrant society where people can move up and down the social ladder. However, there are worries that a small group of highly intelligent people, or the cognitive elite, is becoming more powerful and like a separate class.
Surveys show that while many smart people do not finish college, a large number in the highest IQ levels do earn degrees. Among those who don't graduate, many still have good jobs or high incomes, suggesting they can succeed without a degree. Though some highly intelligent individuals might not reach success due to personal or social challenges, this group is small and shrinking.
Current trends indicate that talented young people are finding opportunities in elite colleges, leading to the cognitive elite becoming wealthier and more separated from others in where they live and who they marry. This could lead to a more connected elite that shares similar political interests, raising concerns about their influence on society and government in the future.