Chapter 19 AffirmativeAction in Higher Education
Affirmative action in higher education needs a clear and honest discussion about how it actually works. The process gives big advantages to minority applicants, meaning black and Latino candidates often compete separately from others. Data shows that, on elite college campuses, the average academic skills of black freshmen are much lower compared to white freshmen. This gap continues in graduate school, sometimes becoming even larger.
Asians, however, are often overlooked in affirmative action and can face disadvantages in admissions. While affirmative action has helped increase the number of black and Latino students in colleges, it also creates problems. Many of these students struggle academically, which can lead to issues like racial tensions and high dropout rates.
A better approach to affirmative action might be to focus on helping disadvantaged students of any race when qualifications are similar. This idea aligns with the original goals of affirmative action. The practice started in the 1960s to support marginalized groups, but it has become controversial as it raises questions about equal opportunities versus historical unfairness. Overall, affirmative action has a significant impact on how society understands justice and diversity.
The “Edge” in Affirmative Action
Affirmative action in higher education is a topic that many people agree on in general but disagree on when it comes to the specifics. While there is a lot of data about how many minorities apply to and are accepted by colleges, there is less information about how much weight is given to someone’s race or ethnicity during the admissions process. An important event in 1991 showed this gap when a law student at Georgetown University published findings about big differences in LSAT scores between accepted black and white students. This revelation sparked controversy, and many people dismissed his results as reinforcing harmful stereotypes about minority students' qualifications.
The traditional idea of equal opportunity means that colleges should choose students based only on their individual achievements. On the other hand, affirmative action gives an advantage to people based on their group membership in addition to their individual measures. Understanding these advantages, referred to as ethnic premiums, is necessary to evaluate if affirmative action is working fairly and effectively. Evaluating how these programs are practiced helps determine if they align with people’s ideas of what is fair and just.
Data from top colleges show clear differences in SAT scores among different racial groups. For example, data shows that, at many elite colleges, the average score between white and black students can differ by 200 points or more. The median difference was found to be around 180 points, which means that, generally, black students score much lower than white students, often landing at a much lower percentile. In contrast, Asian students usually score either similarly to or slightly higher than white students, which means they do not face the same level of disadvantage in the admissions process.
The results indicate that black and Latino students tend to get significant advantages in college admissions, whereas Asian students might face a small disadvantage. This results in little overlap between the student bodies of black and white students at many colleges. Among the data from various selective schools, very few black students scored in the highest ranges of standardized tests, making it easier for prestigious schools to remain predominantly white, even with affirmative action efforts in place.
The competition for the best black and Latino students has grown as colleges try to attract them with financial incentives. Reports show that prestigious universities have offered large scholarships and other benefits to recruit these students. This competition led to a drop in the number of black students accepting offers from schools like Harvard. As colleges increase their recruitment efforts, the average test scores of non-minority students also tend to go up, which sometimes makes the score gaps wider instead of smaller.
In graduate and professional schools, similar patterns appear. In law schools, very few black students score high enough on the LSAT to overlap with white students. Most black law students score significantly lower than their white peers, often ranking below the 10th percentile. The same is true in medical schools, where black medical students also score much lower than white students.
In summary, while affirmative action aims to create fairness in college admissions, there are still significant differences in scores among various racial groups in both undergraduate and graduate schools. Even with these policies, the advantages granted to some groups might not effectively close the gaps in academic performance between different racial groups. This raises important questions about how effective affirmative action really is and whether it is implemented fairly in colleges and universities.
Affirmative Action as Part of the Admissions Process
Affirmative action in college admissions is a policy designed to help address the racial and socioeconomic differences among students who apply to colleges. The differences seen among various racial and ethnic groups, such as Black, Latino, Asian, and white students, have been significant, and understanding these differences is crucial in evaluating the effectiveness of affirmative action. The goal of affirmative action is not purely about academic merit. Instead, it encompasses a broader discussion about how colleges can serve various interests while still trying to create an inclusive environment.
The admissions process in colleges has never been solely about grades and test scores. It incorporates nonacademic factors as well. Different colleges have different goals, and balancing these goals is a challenging task. Affirmative action fits into this balancing act, and it has a long history of being used to serve legitimate institutional interests, social utility, and questions of justice or fairness.
One main rationalization for affirmative action is the concept of institutional benefit. Colleges want a diverse student body for several reasons that help the institution as a whole. For example, a student from a different state or background may bring unique perspectives that enhance the educational environment. At the same time, schools often admit students who are athletes or have special talents, which helps build a vibrant campus life. Admitting Black and Latino students through affirmative action is also seen as a way to enrich the college community.
In addition to campus life, colleges must consider how they are viewed by the outside world. The opinions of society can heavily influence how universities operate. There's been political pressure and legal requirements that have compelled many colleges to implement some level of affirmative action. Although focusing on institutional benefits is important, it may not be enough as a full justification for affirmative action. Some critics argue that if colleges are allowed to favor some minorities purely for institutional benefits, they could also limit the number of certain groups, leading to new forms of inequality.
Another rationale for affirmative action is social utility—the idea that admitting certain students serves the greater good of society. For example, consider a hypothetical situation where a royal family member applies to a prestigious university despite having average academic qualifications. Social utility may suggest that it's worth admitting him because his education could significantly impact his country, influencing many people's lives. In a similar way, if a university has the chance to select a Black student over a white student, even if the white student has better test scores, the reasoning could be that adding a Black attorney to the legal field contributes to greater racial equality.
The final reason for affirmative action is based on just deserts, which focuses on fairness and reward for overcoming challenges. Students who have faced significant hardships—such as poverty, discrimination, or personal hardships—are often given extra consideration in the admissions process. This principle aligns closely with the historical context for some minority groups, particularly African Americans, who have experienced legal and social injustices. The rationale here is that giving these students a better chance at admission is a way of compensating for past oppression and creating a more just society.
However, there are two common arguments against affirmative action. The first is the claim that standardized tests used for admissions do not accurately reflect the true abilities of minority students due to cultural biases. Critics say these tests can be unfairly constructed in ways that disadvantage certain groups. The second argument is that differences in scores do not matter much once candidates have reached a sufficient threshold of ability. While some may believe this to be true, numerous studies have shown that higher test scores generally predict better academic performance in college and throughout life.
When examining how affirmative action is applied, thinking about hypothetical groups of applicants can be helpful. For instance, if a disadvantaged minority student from a poor neighborhood competes against a white student from a wealthy neighborhood, the arguments for favoring the minority student become stronger because of his background and challenges faced. This example illustrates the complexities involved in making decisions about admissions.
However, the situation becomes more complicated when both applicants come from affluent backgrounds. Here, the fairness of applying affirmative action may be more contentious. Should a minority student still be favored if their grades are lower than those of a white student in a similar socioeconomic position? The right decision can vary based on the specific circumstances and guidelines of the institution.
Despite the strong reasons for affirmative action, many admissions departments often focus primarily on numerical diversity requirements. There's pressure to meet specific quotas for minority students, which can lead to oversights about the deeper reasons for affirmative action. Admissions committees may prioritize the percentage of minority students in their incoming class over a thoughtful examination of each student's unique background and achievements.
Colleges already have access to an extensive amount of data on applicants—including test scores, ethnic backgrounds, and socioeconomic statuses. This data can help universities assess how effectively affirmative action policies are working. However, many colleges may not be using this information in a way that aligns with the original goals of affirmative action. The current approach in many universities may drift away from the intended purpose, suggesting that it's important to reassess how these policies are applied.
As society evolves, it's essential to ensure that colleges adjust their affirmative action practices to promote fairness, represent diverse perspectives, and contribute positively to the community. The goals of affirmative action should be regularly examined and refined to ensure they remain relevant and effective in achieving justice. Ultimately, successful affirmative action should balance institutional benefits, social utility, and concepts of fairness to create an admissions process that is equitable for all applicants.
The Success of Affirmative Action in the Universities
Affirmative action in universities has successfully increased the number of minority students attending and graduating from college. After it started in the mid-1960s, black college enrollment rose a lot, reaching its highest point in the early 1990s. Black students now enroll more than their white counterparts with similar backgrounds and abilities. This change has also made many minority youths feel that college is a real option for them. While some challenges remain, affirmative action is seen as a success in creating more educational opportunities for minorities.
The Costs of Affirmative Action in the Universities
Affirmative action in universities has various costs, especially in terms of race relations among students. One key concern is that some white students may lose their chances to attend universities because affirmative action gives preference to minority students. This can harm the self-esteem of minority students, who may struggle academically compared to their peers, and it can create misunderstandings about their abilities.
Students notice differences in academic performance among their peers. While only a small number of low-IQ students make it to college, the focus is often on those who do make it, which can lead to misperceptions about all students from that background. This results in a visible gap in performance, where many minority students are found in the lower levels of academic achievement while white students are more represented in higher levels. This situation can cause resentment among white students, who may feel that the admissions process is unfair.
Racial tensions on college campuses have increased since the early 1980s, mainly between black and white students. Some white students may resent black students who benefit from affirmative action, feeling they have unfair advantages. Meanwhile, black students might feel hostility in the college environment due to these perceptions. This ongoing tension highlights the differences in academic success between races, leading to higher dropout rates among black students compared to white students.
Research shows that black students tend to drop out at rates almost double those of white students. This difference can often be linked to cognitive ability. While there are other factors involved, such as different experiences at various colleges, these academic challenges contribute to a tough environment for minority students.
In society, college degrees carry significant weight, but affirmative action can lessen their value for minority graduates. Because of this, a degree from a respected school might be viewed differently if a student is black compared to a white student. This implies that affirmative action may reinforce existing gaps in cognitive ability among different racial groups rather than helping to close those gaps. To truly achieve equality and maintain the value of degrees, universities should have the same standards for admissions and grading for all students. Many believe that the current practice of affirmative action is a mistake, impacting both universities and society as a whole.
A Policy Agenda
Affirmative action in universities should be changed to focus on finding talented students from all backgrounds, especially those who are disadvantaged. When choosing between two candidates who are similar in qualifications, preference should go to the one from a disadvantaged background. Schools should follow guidelines to make sure that no specific group has much lower average test scores compared to others, as current differences are concerning. Ending strong affirmative action does not mean that minorities will lose chances for a college education. In the past, some colleges had fair admissions policies where applicants did not reveal their race or religion, and many minority students did well. While fewer black students might attend top schools without affirmative action, it does not mean they will have no college options at all. The goal should be to treat students fairly based on their abilities and backgrounds, creating a more equal university environment for everyone.
Affirmative action in higher education needs a clear and honest discussion about how it actually works. The process gives big advantages to minority applicants, meaning black and Latino candidates often compete separately from others. Data shows that, on elite college campuses, the average academic skills of black freshmen are much lower compared to white freshmen. This gap continues in graduate school, sometimes becoming even larger.
Asians, however, are often overlooked in affirmative action and can face disadvantages in admissions. While affirmative action has helped increase the number of black and Latino students in colleges, it also creates problems. Many of these students struggle academically, which can lead to issues like racial tensions and high dropout rates.
A better approach to affirmative action might be to focus on helping disadvantaged students of any race when qualifications are similar. This idea aligns with the original goals of affirmative action. The practice started in the 1960s to support marginalized groups, but it has become controversial as it raises questions about equal opportunities versus historical unfairness. Overall, affirmative action has a significant impact on how society understands justice and diversity.
The “Edge” in Affirmative Action
Affirmative action in higher education is a topic that many people agree on in general but disagree on when it comes to the specifics. While there is a lot of data about how many minorities apply to and are accepted by colleges, there is less information about how much weight is given to someone’s race or ethnicity during the admissions process. An important event in 1991 showed this gap when a law student at Georgetown University published findings about big differences in LSAT scores between accepted black and white students. This revelation sparked controversy, and many people dismissed his results as reinforcing harmful stereotypes about minority students' qualifications.
The traditional idea of equal opportunity means that colleges should choose students based only on their individual achievements. On the other hand, affirmative action gives an advantage to people based on their group membership in addition to their individual measures. Understanding these advantages, referred to as ethnic premiums, is necessary to evaluate if affirmative action is working fairly and effectively. Evaluating how these programs are practiced helps determine if they align with people’s ideas of what is fair and just.
Data from top colleges show clear differences in SAT scores among different racial groups. For example, data shows that, at many elite colleges, the average score between white and black students can differ by 200 points or more. The median difference was found to be around 180 points, which means that, generally, black students score much lower than white students, often landing at a much lower percentile. In contrast, Asian students usually score either similarly to or slightly higher than white students, which means they do not face the same level of disadvantage in the admissions process.
The results indicate that black and Latino students tend to get significant advantages in college admissions, whereas Asian students might face a small disadvantage. This results in little overlap between the student bodies of black and white students at many colleges. Among the data from various selective schools, very few black students scored in the highest ranges of standardized tests, making it easier for prestigious schools to remain predominantly white, even with affirmative action efforts in place.
The competition for the best black and Latino students has grown as colleges try to attract them with financial incentives. Reports show that prestigious universities have offered large scholarships and other benefits to recruit these students. This competition led to a drop in the number of black students accepting offers from schools like Harvard. As colleges increase their recruitment efforts, the average test scores of non-minority students also tend to go up, which sometimes makes the score gaps wider instead of smaller.
In graduate and professional schools, similar patterns appear. In law schools, very few black students score high enough on the LSAT to overlap with white students. Most black law students score significantly lower than their white peers, often ranking below the 10th percentile. The same is true in medical schools, where black medical students also score much lower than white students.
In summary, while affirmative action aims to create fairness in college admissions, there are still significant differences in scores among various racial groups in both undergraduate and graduate schools. Even with these policies, the advantages granted to some groups might not effectively close the gaps in academic performance between different racial groups. This raises important questions about how effective affirmative action really is and whether it is implemented fairly in colleges and universities.
Affirmative Action as Part of the Admissions Process
Affirmative action in college admissions is a policy designed to help address the racial and socioeconomic differences among students who apply to colleges. The differences seen among various racial and ethnic groups, such as Black, Latino, Asian, and white students, have been significant, and understanding these differences is crucial in evaluating the effectiveness of affirmative action. The goal of affirmative action is not purely about academic merit. Instead, it encompasses a broader discussion about how colleges can serve various interests while still trying to create an inclusive environment.
The admissions process in colleges has never been solely about grades and test scores. It incorporates nonacademic factors as well. Different colleges have different goals, and balancing these goals is a challenging task. Affirmative action fits into this balancing act, and it has a long history of being used to serve legitimate institutional interests, social utility, and questions of justice or fairness.
One main rationalization for affirmative action is the concept of institutional benefit. Colleges want a diverse student body for several reasons that help the institution as a whole. For example, a student from a different state or background may bring unique perspectives that enhance the educational environment. At the same time, schools often admit students who are athletes or have special talents, which helps build a vibrant campus life. Admitting Black and Latino students through affirmative action is also seen as a way to enrich the college community.
In addition to campus life, colleges must consider how they are viewed by the outside world. The opinions of society can heavily influence how universities operate. There's been political pressure and legal requirements that have compelled many colleges to implement some level of affirmative action. Although focusing on institutional benefits is important, it may not be enough as a full justification for affirmative action. Some critics argue that if colleges are allowed to favor some minorities purely for institutional benefits, they could also limit the number of certain groups, leading to new forms of inequality.
Another rationale for affirmative action is social utility—the idea that admitting certain students serves the greater good of society. For example, consider a hypothetical situation where a royal family member applies to a prestigious university despite having average academic qualifications. Social utility may suggest that it's worth admitting him because his education could significantly impact his country, influencing many people's lives. In a similar way, if a university has the chance to select a Black student over a white student, even if the white student has better test scores, the reasoning could be that adding a Black attorney to the legal field contributes to greater racial equality.
The final reason for affirmative action is based on just deserts, which focuses on fairness and reward for overcoming challenges. Students who have faced significant hardships—such as poverty, discrimination, or personal hardships—are often given extra consideration in the admissions process. This principle aligns closely with the historical context for some minority groups, particularly African Americans, who have experienced legal and social injustices. The rationale here is that giving these students a better chance at admission is a way of compensating for past oppression and creating a more just society.
However, there are two common arguments against affirmative action. The first is the claim that standardized tests used for admissions do not accurately reflect the true abilities of minority students due to cultural biases. Critics say these tests can be unfairly constructed in ways that disadvantage certain groups. The second argument is that differences in scores do not matter much once candidates have reached a sufficient threshold of ability. While some may believe this to be true, numerous studies have shown that higher test scores generally predict better academic performance in college and throughout life.
When examining how affirmative action is applied, thinking about hypothetical groups of applicants can be helpful. For instance, if a disadvantaged minority student from a poor neighborhood competes against a white student from a wealthy neighborhood, the arguments for favoring the minority student become stronger because of his background and challenges faced. This example illustrates the complexities involved in making decisions about admissions.
However, the situation becomes more complicated when both applicants come from affluent backgrounds. Here, the fairness of applying affirmative action may be more contentious. Should a minority student still be favored if their grades are lower than those of a white student in a similar socioeconomic position? The right decision can vary based on the specific circumstances and guidelines of the institution.
Despite the strong reasons for affirmative action, many admissions departments often focus primarily on numerical diversity requirements. There's pressure to meet specific quotas for minority students, which can lead to oversights about the deeper reasons for affirmative action. Admissions committees may prioritize the percentage of minority students in their incoming class over a thoughtful examination of each student's unique background and achievements.
Colleges already have access to an extensive amount of data on applicants—including test scores, ethnic backgrounds, and socioeconomic statuses. This data can help universities assess how effectively affirmative action policies are working. However, many colleges may not be using this information in a way that aligns with the original goals of affirmative action. The current approach in many universities may drift away from the intended purpose, suggesting that it's important to reassess how these policies are applied.
As society evolves, it's essential to ensure that colleges adjust their affirmative action practices to promote fairness, represent diverse perspectives, and contribute positively to the community. The goals of affirmative action should be regularly examined and refined to ensure they remain relevant and effective in achieving justice. Ultimately, successful affirmative action should balance institutional benefits, social utility, and concepts of fairness to create an admissions process that is equitable for all applicants.
The Success of Affirmative Action in the Universities
Affirmative action in universities has successfully increased the number of minority students attending and graduating from college. After it started in the mid-1960s, black college enrollment rose a lot, reaching its highest point in the early 1990s. Black students now enroll more than their white counterparts with similar backgrounds and abilities. This change has also made many minority youths feel that college is a real option for them. While some challenges remain, affirmative action is seen as a success in creating more educational opportunities for minorities.
The Costs of Affirmative Action in the Universities
Affirmative action in universities has various costs, especially in terms of race relations among students. One key concern is that some white students may lose their chances to attend universities because affirmative action gives preference to minority students. This can harm the self-esteem of minority students, who may struggle academically compared to their peers, and it can create misunderstandings about their abilities.
Students notice differences in academic performance among their peers. While only a small number of low-IQ students make it to college, the focus is often on those who do make it, which can lead to misperceptions about all students from that background. This results in a visible gap in performance, where many minority students are found in the lower levels of academic achievement while white students are more represented in higher levels. This situation can cause resentment among white students, who may feel that the admissions process is unfair.
Racial tensions on college campuses have increased since the early 1980s, mainly between black and white students. Some white students may resent black students who benefit from affirmative action, feeling they have unfair advantages. Meanwhile, black students might feel hostility in the college environment due to these perceptions. This ongoing tension highlights the differences in academic success between races, leading to higher dropout rates among black students compared to white students.
Research shows that black students tend to drop out at rates almost double those of white students. This difference can often be linked to cognitive ability. While there are other factors involved, such as different experiences at various colleges, these academic challenges contribute to a tough environment for minority students.
In society, college degrees carry significant weight, but affirmative action can lessen their value for minority graduates. Because of this, a degree from a respected school might be viewed differently if a student is black compared to a white student. This implies that affirmative action may reinforce existing gaps in cognitive ability among different racial groups rather than helping to close those gaps. To truly achieve equality and maintain the value of degrees, universities should have the same standards for admissions and grading for all students. Many believe that the current practice of affirmative action is a mistake, impacting both universities and society as a whole.
A Policy Agenda
Affirmative action in universities should be changed to focus on finding talented students from all backgrounds, especially those who are disadvantaged. When choosing between two candidates who are similar in qualifications, preference should go to the one from a disadvantaged background. Schools should follow guidelines to make sure that no specific group has much lower average test scores compared to others, as current differences are concerning. Ending strong affirmative action does not mean that minorities will lose chances for a college education. In the past, some colleges had fair admissions policies where applicants did not reveal their race or religion, and many minority students did well. While fewer black students might attend top schools without affirmative action, it does not mean they will have no college options at all. The goal should be to treat students fairly based on their abilities and backgrounds, creating a more equal university environment for everyone.