FOUR: FREEDOM, REASON, AND TRADITION
1 the Two Traditions of Freedom
Freedom is not a natural condition but rather a creation of civilization that developed over time. It wasn't planned; people discovered its benefits as they went along. In the eighteenth century, two main ideas about liberty emerged in England and France. The English tradition is based on customs and institutions that developed naturally, while the French tradition is more focused on theory and the idea of building an ideal society. The French approach has often gained more influence because it presents logical arguments, even though it can sometimes misinterpret British ideas about freedom. Over time, the differences between these traditions became less clear during the liberal movement of the nineteenth century, blending ideas from both sides. The English viewpoint sees government interference as potentially oppressive, while the French view considers it necessary for progress, leading to different political outcomes today.
2 the Evolutionary Conception
There are two different views on freedom and how society works, which influence modern liberalism. The British view says that true freedom comes from natural growth and not being forced. According to this perspective, social institutions develop over time based on what works well, rather than being created with a detailed plan. Political order arises more from experiences in history than from human reasoning, with institutions forming through trial and error.
On the other hand, the French view is more focused on the idea of a social contract or an original legislator who designs society. This way of thinking can lead to totalitarian ideas, as it often looks to examples like Sparta, where laws were created by one person with one goal in mind. Ancient thinkers believed that good governance comes from the shared experiences of many people over a long time, which questions the idea that society can be quickly and easily reorganized through discussions or contracts.
Overall, understanding the historical context and how experiences shape social institutions is essential for maintaining freedom. This shows that developing society is complex and cannot rely solely on intellectual design.
3 the Growth of Order
Orderly social institutions can develop from the unplanned actions of many individuals, rather than being designed by a single mind. This idea presents a new perspective that challenges the belief in a higher intelligence behind order. Importantly, the concept of evolution in social structures influenced early biological theories, rather than the reverse. In social evolution, success comes from imitating effective practices and ideas rather than biological traits. Thus, social evolution relies on cultural transmission through learning and imitation, not on physical inheritance.
4 the Conflicting Assumptions of the Two Approaches
The two approaches to understanding civilization differ in important ways, especially regarding human nature and institutions. The rationalist tradition assumes that people are naturally smart and good, which allows them to create civilization on purpose. On the other hand, the evolutionary approach explains that civilization came about through trial and error, built from experiences and strengthened by institutions that worked well over time. Scottish thinkers recognized that civilization relies on managing human instincts through institutions that are not fully designed or controlled by people. They did not believe in the natural goodness of humans or that liberty alone would fix social problems. Instead, they argued that good institutions can guide individual actions for the public good and that the state plays a vital role in this process.
5 Custom and Tradition
The main difference between two views lies in their beliefs about tradition and unconscious growth. Rationalists see all useful institutions as planned creations, viewing freedom as potentially chaotic. In contrast, those who follow the empiricist evolutionary perspective value freedom for the opportunities it creates for naturally developed institutions and customs. A truly free society respects these traditions and practices, even if their origins are unclear. This perspective acknowledges that the collective wisdom from past generations can be greater than individual understanding, rather than assuming past creators were infallibly wise.
6 the Rule of Morals
Moral rules are essential for maintaining order in society and enabling individuals to interact successfully. These rules arise from established habits and traditions, often followed unconsciously rather than through coercion. A high level of voluntary conformity to these rules minimizes the need for enforcement, leading to a more functioning freedom. It is beneficial for these rules to allow for flexibility, as individuals can choose to break them if necessary, promoting gradual change and improvement. Unlike rigid, imposed laws, these moral rules evolve over time based on experience and social dynamics. This reliance on traditional, often unexamined customs is crucial for a free society, although it may be challenging for rational thinkers to accept. Moral principles are seen as fundamental to reason, and any push for improvement must consider the existing framework of values and institutions that shape our understanding and behavior.
7 Superstitions About Superstition
Superstitions are often viewed critically by rationalists who argue against beliefs that cannot be scientifically proven. While it's reasonable to reject proven false beliefs, dismissing all beliefs that lack evidence can be harmful. Many widely held beliefs exist because of shared experiences, even if they aren't scientifically validated. Society relies on these beliefs to function effectively, even if their origins are misunderstood. It is especially important for moral rules to be accepted without full understanding, as they shape our lives significantly. Rationalists seek a clear, logical system of morals, but they often overlook that what they consider "human nature" is shaped by the very moral teachings that society imparts.
8 the Moral and the “Social”
There is a noticeable trend where "social" is increasingly used instead of "moral" or "good." This shift highlights a focus on understanding how our actions impact others and emphasizes making decisions based on specific outcomes, deemed as the "social good." However, this perspective suggests that individuals should rely on their judgment rather than established societal rules, which can undermine the essence of what is social. It is argued that relying on individual intelligence to guide actions can lead to confusion, as people lack the capacity to fully understand complex situations. Instead, using established moral rules helps individuals navigate their choices effectively without needing to analyze every single case. These rules, shaped over time through society, are essential for ensuring actions do not harm others and support our long-term goals. Thus, adhering to moral rules should be seen as important in itself, even if we do not always understand their significance in specific situations.
9 Freedom as a Moral Principle
Freedom is an important moral principle that governs both individual and collective actions. A society's moral beliefs can either help or harm it, and merely following the ideas of respected leaders does not guarantee beneficial outcomes. If everyone is forced to adhere to the same ideals without the option for dissent, the society may suffer if those ideals prove to be harmful. It's crucial to ask whether the majority's agreement on a moral rule justifies forcing it on those who disagree. Political actions also need moral guidelines, and these should align with general principles to ensure beneficial outcomes. Individual freedom should be valued as a fundamental moral principle in politics, demanding respect regardless of potential consequences. If freedom is compromised for short-term gains, it risks fading away. Maintaining freedom requires a strong commitment to it as an overriding ideal, rather than allowing it to be limited for expediency or material advantages.
10 the Role of Reason
Reason plays a crucial role in organizing social affairs, but it must be understood that it is not all-powerful and comes with limitations. Recognizing these limits is an important exercise of reason itself. The effective use of reason should not entail an attempt to control everything through government or impose absolute solutions. Instead, reason should be used intelligently within the natural complexities of human society, which functions like a living organism with its own dynamics. Efforts to improve society should focus on working with existing social structures rather than trying to redesign them entirely. This means understanding society’s workings and approaching change in gradual, piecemeal ways. It's essential not to view reason as an absolute force, as doing so can lead to misunderstandings and ineffective governance. Intelligent use of reason should allow for experimentation and flexibility, avoiding monopolistic power that dismisses alternative solutions. Ultimately, while promoting freedom is challenging and often requires endurance, it is through the careful cultivation of reason within the framework of freedom that societal improvement can truly take place, allowing us to learn from experience and adapt as needed. Society’s progress should be viewed as a collaborative endeavor rather than a top-down approach to control.
1 the Two Traditions of Freedom
Freedom is not a natural condition but rather a creation of civilization that developed over time. It wasn't planned; people discovered its benefits as they went along. In the eighteenth century, two main ideas about liberty emerged in England and France. The English tradition is based on customs and institutions that developed naturally, while the French tradition is more focused on theory and the idea of building an ideal society. The French approach has often gained more influence because it presents logical arguments, even though it can sometimes misinterpret British ideas about freedom. Over time, the differences between these traditions became less clear during the liberal movement of the nineteenth century, blending ideas from both sides. The English viewpoint sees government interference as potentially oppressive, while the French view considers it necessary for progress, leading to different political outcomes today.
2 the Evolutionary Conception
There are two different views on freedom and how society works, which influence modern liberalism. The British view says that true freedom comes from natural growth and not being forced. According to this perspective, social institutions develop over time based on what works well, rather than being created with a detailed plan. Political order arises more from experiences in history than from human reasoning, with institutions forming through trial and error.
On the other hand, the French view is more focused on the idea of a social contract or an original legislator who designs society. This way of thinking can lead to totalitarian ideas, as it often looks to examples like Sparta, where laws were created by one person with one goal in mind. Ancient thinkers believed that good governance comes from the shared experiences of many people over a long time, which questions the idea that society can be quickly and easily reorganized through discussions or contracts.
Overall, understanding the historical context and how experiences shape social institutions is essential for maintaining freedom. This shows that developing society is complex and cannot rely solely on intellectual design.
3 the Growth of Order
Orderly social institutions can develop from the unplanned actions of many individuals, rather than being designed by a single mind. This idea presents a new perspective that challenges the belief in a higher intelligence behind order. Importantly, the concept of evolution in social structures influenced early biological theories, rather than the reverse. In social evolution, success comes from imitating effective practices and ideas rather than biological traits. Thus, social evolution relies on cultural transmission through learning and imitation, not on physical inheritance.
4 the Conflicting Assumptions of the Two Approaches
The two approaches to understanding civilization differ in important ways, especially regarding human nature and institutions. The rationalist tradition assumes that people are naturally smart and good, which allows them to create civilization on purpose. On the other hand, the evolutionary approach explains that civilization came about through trial and error, built from experiences and strengthened by institutions that worked well over time. Scottish thinkers recognized that civilization relies on managing human instincts through institutions that are not fully designed or controlled by people. They did not believe in the natural goodness of humans or that liberty alone would fix social problems. Instead, they argued that good institutions can guide individual actions for the public good and that the state plays a vital role in this process.
5 Custom and Tradition
The main difference between two views lies in their beliefs about tradition and unconscious growth. Rationalists see all useful institutions as planned creations, viewing freedom as potentially chaotic. In contrast, those who follow the empiricist evolutionary perspective value freedom for the opportunities it creates for naturally developed institutions and customs. A truly free society respects these traditions and practices, even if their origins are unclear. This perspective acknowledges that the collective wisdom from past generations can be greater than individual understanding, rather than assuming past creators were infallibly wise.
6 the Rule of Morals
Moral rules are essential for maintaining order in society and enabling individuals to interact successfully. These rules arise from established habits and traditions, often followed unconsciously rather than through coercion. A high level of voluntary conformity to these rules minimizes the need for enforcement, leading to a more functioning freedom. It is beneficial for these rules to allow for flexibility, as individuals can choose to break them if necessary, promoting gradual change and improvement. Unlike rigid, imposed laws, these moral rules evolve over time based on experience and social dynamics. This reliance on traditional, often unexamined customs is crucial for a free society, although it may be challenging for rational thinkers to accept. Moral principles are seen as fundamental to reason, and any push for improvement must consider the existing framework of values and institutions that shape our understanding and behavior.
7 Superstitions About Superstition
Superstitions are often viewed critically by rationalists who argue against beliefs that cannot be scientifically proven. While it's reasonable to reject proven false beliefs, dismissing all beliefs that lack evidence can be harmful. Many widely held beliefs exist because of shared experiences, even if they aren't scientifically validated. Society relies on these beliefs to function effectively, even if their origins are misunderstood. It is especially important for moral rules to be accepted without full understanding, as they shape our lives significantly. Rationalists seek a clear, logical system of morals, but they often overlook that what they consider "human nature" is shaped by the very moral teachings that society imparts.
8 the Moral and the “Social”
There is a noticeable trend where "social" is increasingly used instead of "moral" or "good." This shift highlights a focus on understanding how our actions impact others and emphasizes making decisions based on specific outcomes, deemed as the "social good." However, this perspective suggests that individuals should rely on their judgment rather than established societal rules, which can undermine the essence of what is social. It is argued that relying on individual intelligence to guide actions can lead to confusion, as people lack the capacity to fully understand complex situations. Instead, using established moral rules helps individuals navigate their choices effectively without needing to analyze every single case. These rules, shaped over time through society, are essential for ensuring actions do not harm others and support our long-term goals. Thus, adhering to moral rules should be seen as important in itself, even if we do not always understand their significance in specific situations.
9 Freedom as a Moral Principle
Freedom is an important moral principle that governs both individual and collective actions. A society's moral beliefs can either help or harm it, and merely following the ideas of respected leaders does not guarantee beneficial outcomes. If everyone is forced to adhere to the same ideals without the option for dissent, the society may suffer if those ideals prove to be harmful. It's crucial to ask whether the majority's agreement on a moral rule justifies forcing it on those who disagree. Political actions also need moral guidelines, and these should align with general principles to ensure beneficial outcomes. Individual freedom should be valued as a fundamental moral principle in politics, demanding respect regardless of potential consequences. If freedom is compromised for short-term gains, it risks fading away. Maintaining freedom requires a strong commitment to it as an overriding ideal, rather than allowing it to be limited for expediency or material advantages.
10 the Role of Reason
Reason plays a crucial role in organizing social affairs, but it must be understood that it is not all-powerful and comes with limitations. Recognizing these limits is an important exercise of reason itself. The effective use of reason should not entail an attempt to control everything through government or impose absolute solutions. Instead, reason should be used intelligently within the natural complexities of human society, which functions like a living organism with its own dynamics. Efforts to improve society should focus on working with existing social structures rather than trying to redesign them entirely. This means understanding society’s workings and approaching change in gradual, piecemeal ways. It's essential not to view reason as an absolute force, as doing so can lead to misunderstandings and ineffective governance. Intelligent use of reason should allow for experimentation and flexibility, avoiding monopolistic power that dismisses alternative solutions. Ultimately, while promoting freedom is challenging and often requires endurance, it is through the careful cultivation of reason within the framework of freedom that societal improvement can truly take place, allowing us to learn from experience and adapt as needed. Society’s progress should be viewed as a collaborative endeavor rather than a top-down approach to control.