6 Wages and Occupations
Occupational Gains
The American dream includes the idea of moving up in job status, from unskilled labor to skilled positions. Affirmative Action aimed to help minorities, especially blacks, access more job opportunities. Between 1959 and 1980, the percentage of employed blacks in white-collar jobs rose significantly from 14% to 39%, and the gap between blacks and whites in these roles narrowed. Most advancement occurred in lower-tier professional and technical jobs rather than high-level positions. A large portion of job growth for blacks was in government jobs, particularly in social services. Despite these gains, blacks remained underrepresented in prestigious roles within the private sector. Overall, there was positive progress, especially after 1960.
Income of Full-Time Workers
The income of full-time workers has changed significantly over the years, especially for black workers. Data shows that the median income for black males increased, although there remained a consistent wage gap between black and white workers. In 1955, black males earned 61 percent of what white males earned, but by 1980, that figure improved to 75 percent. This suggests that while blacks made gains, they might still be underpaid compared to whites for similar jobs. Analyzing the data further reveals that education and labor force participation among black workers played critical roles in these income differences.
Among educated black workers, particularly in professional fields, the income gap narrowed considerably. By 1980, black males in professional jobs earned 86 percent of what their white counterparts made, while black females made nearly equal wages—98 percent—compared to white females. Factors like education quality and experience could have influenced these outcomes, suggesting that in some cases, racial income differences may have diminished for educated blacks entering the workforce after 1964.
However, historical discrimination meant that well-educated blacks often faced disadvantages in the labor market. Previously, highly educated blacks were discriminated against more than their less-educated peers, as seen in the example of a poorly performing black intellectual elite in the early 20th century. Yet, starting in the 1950s and especially in the 1960s, this trend began to reverse, with black workers starting to earn competitive wages relative to whites with similar education levels. By the early 1970s, studies indicated that black workers were beginning to receive returns on their education similar to those of white workers.
Another group making remarkable progress during this time was black women. By 1980, black women were earning wages comparable to their white female counterparts across various occupations, effectively eliminating the racial wage gap in non-agricultural jobs. This indicated progress towards narrowing wage disparities based on race and gender.
Despite these gains, challenges remained. Some experts observed that black workers might trade off higher initial wages for lower earnings growth over time, leading to stagnation in career advancement. Various factors, including "tokenism," where black professionals are placed in high-visibility positions but not provided with the necessary responsibilities and training to grow their careers, played a role in this. Such scenarios resulted in a ceiling on advancement that could hinder long-term earning potential.
Overall, while black workers made undeniable strides in securing better employment opportunities, significant disparities remained, particularly among those lacking educational qualifications. Education played a crucial role in determining earning potentials, and lower educational attainment contributed to higher unemployment rates and reduced labor force participation among some black populations.
The federal efforts to reduce discrimination began with the 1964 Civil Rights Act, which aimed to ensure equal job opportunities. Over the years, affirmative action programs were put in place to further support disadvantaged individuals seeking employment. These initiatives included measures to increase minority hiring and set aside government contracts for minority-owned businesses. While there were delays in enforcement, by the late 1960s, lawsuits and court decisions started to shape the landscape of workplace equality.
The implementation of affirmative action led to observable changes in employer attitudes towards hiring, with a greater focus on diversifying their workforce. Companies began to actively consider racial and gender diversity in their hiring practices, setting specific goals to increase minority representation and adjusting recruitment methods accordingly. While challenges still existed, these measures marked a significant shift in addressing racial discrimination in the workplace.
Occupational Gains
The American dream includes the idea of moving up in job status, from unskilled labor to skilled positions. Affirmative Action aimed to help minorities, especially blacks, access more job opportunities. Between 1959 and 1980, the percentage of employed blacks in white-collar jobs rose significantly from 14% to 39%, and the gap between blacks and whites in these roles narrowed. Most advancement occurred in lower-tier professional and technical jobs rather than high-level positions. A large portion of job growth for blacks was in government jobs, particularly in social services. Despite these gains, blacks remained underrepresented in prestigious roles within the private sector. Overall, there was positive progress, especially after 1960.
Income of Full-Time Workers
The income of full-time workers has changed significantly over the years, especially for black workers. Data shows that the median income for black males increased, although there remained a consistent wage gap between black and white workers. In 1955, black males earned 61 percent of what white males earned, but by 1980, that figure improved to 75 percent. This suggests that while blacks made gains, they might still be underpaid compared to whites for similar jobs. Analyzing the data further reveals that education and labor force participation among black workers played critical roles in these income differences.
Among educated black workers, particularly in professional fields, the income gap narrowed considerably. By 1980, black males in professional jobs earned 86 percent of what their white counterparts made, while black females made nearly equal wages—98 percent—compared to white females. Factors like education quality and experience could have influenced these outcomes, suggesting that in some cases, racial income differences may have diminished for educated blacks entering the workforce after 1964.
However, historical discrimination meant that well-educated blacks often faced disadvantages in the labor market. Previously, highly educated blacks were discriminated against more than their less-educated peers, as seen in the example of a poorly performing black intellectual elite in the early 20th century. Yet, starting in the 1950s and especially in the 1960s, this trend began to reverse, with black workers starting to earn competitive wages relative to whites with similar education levels. By the early 1970s, studies indicated that black workers were beginning to receive returns on their education similar to those of white workers.
Another group making remarkable progress during this time was black women. By 1980, black women were earning wages comparable to their white female counterparts across various occupations, effectively eliminating the racial wage gap in non-agricultural jobs. This indicated progress towards narrowing wage disparities based on race and gender.
Despite these gains, challenges remained. Some experts observed that black workers might trade off higher initial wages for lower earnings growth over time, leading to stagnation in career advancement. Various factors, including "tokenism," where black professionals are placed in high-visibility positions but not provided with the necessary responsibilities and training to grow their careers, played a role in this. Such scenarios resulted in a ceiling on advancement that could hinder long-term earning potential.
Overall, while black workers made undeniable strides in securing better employment opportunities, significant disparities remained, particularly among those lacking educational qualifications. Education played a crucial role in determining earning potentials, and lower educational attainment contributed to higher unemployment rates and reduced labor force participation among some black populations.
The federal efforts to reduce discrimination began with the 1964 Civil Rights Act, which aimed to ensure equal job opportunities. Over the years, affirmative action programs were put in place to further support disadvantaged individuals seeking employment. These initiatives included measures to increase minority hiring and set aside government contracts for minority-owned businesses. While there were delays in enforcement, by the late 1960s, lawsuits and court decisions started to shape the landscape of workplace equality.
The implementation of affirmative action led to observable changes in employer attitudes towards hiring, with a greater focus on diversifying their workforce. Companies began to actively consider racial and gender diversity in their hiring practices, setting specific goals to increase minority representation and adjusting recruitment methods accordingly. While challenges still existed, these measures marked a significant shift in addressing racial discrimination in the workplace.