3 Implementing the Elite Wisdom
An Elite Wisdom
The reform period of the mid-1960s did not stem from a wide popular movement, unlike the New Deal. Instead, it was influenced by a small, powerful group known as the intelligentsia, which includes individuals from academia, journalism, and various research organizations. This group plays a crucial role in shaping social policy and public opinion by promoting ideas and conferring respectability to them, much like fashion trends. By the end of 1967, there was a significant shift in the accepted premises of social policy, leading to broad agreement on what effective policies should look like. This marked a notable change in the political dialogue and societal attitudes compared to the past.
The New Premises
In the 1960s, civil rights changed from focusing on "equality of opportunity" to "equality of outcome." The Civil Rights Act of 1964 aimed to create a society that didn’t favor any race, but by 1965, the idea shifted to making sure everyone actually received equal treatment as a result. This led to the introduction of affirmative action. As different minority groups emerged, each wanted specific protections under the law. The view of the American system also changed; it was seen as flawed and in need of government help to ensure fairness. This meant laws were created to prevent discrimination and support equal rights for everyone.
The New Alms
The meaning of "a job" shifted dramatically in the 1960s, impacting how poverty and assistance policies were viewed. Before this change, public assistance primarily focused on the unemployed, with no support for those with low-paying jobs. The assumption was that anyone with a job was self-sufficient, and if their income was low, it was their responsibility to improve their situation. However, this idea began to falter as society recognized that factors like inheritance and luck affected people's economic situations. By the late 1960s, the notion that the system could be at fault for inadequate wages led to a new understanding of welfare. This resulted in support for programs aiding the working poor, exemplified by Nixon's Family Assistance Plan, which acknowledged the government's responsibility to assist both working and non-working people.
The Reforms
The reform period happened during the Johnson administration and included important changes in areas like poverty, welfare, education, law enforcement, and social services. Most of the changes, such as new laws and policies, were introduced then, but many of the immediate reforms came from executive actions rather than the legislation typically linked to the Great Society programs. For instance, government agencies were given the power to create mandatory standards for consumer safety and environmental protection, which deeply affected people and industries.
Some changes, like the disability compensation program, occurred quietly. While many more people began receiving disability benefits, the number of workers covered by the program didn't increase as much. Other changes in welfare programs during the 1960s happened as a result of changes in how things were done rather than through clear new policies. Court decisions were also very important during this time. Some famous court rulings changed rights in areas like juvenile justice and education quickly.
Even though the ideas and promises of social welfare programs began to change during Johnson's time, the real money and funding for these programs didn't start to help many people until around 1967-68 and fully took effect in the 1970s. For example, the Food Stamp program grew from about 424,000 people participating in 1965 to over 21 million by 1980. Similarly, more people started enrolling in job training programs after Johnson's presidency.
While the federal government did start major reforms, state and local governments were already working on similar changes. However, federal laws and court decisions are usually harder to undo than local decisions, which helped make these changes lasting on a national level, embedding them in law and judicial practices.
An Elite Wisdom
The reform period of the mid-1960s did not stem from a wide popular movement, unlike the New Deal. Instead, it was influenced by a small, powerful group known as the intelligentsia, which includes individuals from academia, journalism, and various research organizations. This group plays a crucial role in shaping social policy and public opinion by promoting ideas and conferring respectability to them, much like fashion trends. By the end of 1967, there was a significant shift in the accepted premises of social policy, leading to broad agreement on what effective policies should look like. This marked a notable change in the political dialogue and societal attitudes compared to the past.
The New Premises
In the 1960s, civil rights changed from focusing on "equality of opportunity" to "equality of outcome." The Civil Rights Act of 1964 aimed to create a society that didn’t favor any race, but by 1965, the idea shifted to making sure everyone actually received equal treatment as a result. This led to the introduction of affirmative action. As different minority groups emerged, each wanted specific protections under the law. The view of the American system also changed; it was seen as flawed and in need of government help to ensure fairness. This meant laws were created to prevent discrimination and support equal rights for everyone.
The New Alms
The meaning of "a job" shifted dramatically in the 1960s, impacting how poverty and assistance policies were viewed. Before this change, public assistance primarily focused on the unemployed, with no support for those with low-paying jobs. The assumption was that anyone with a job was self-sufficient, and if their income was low, it was their responsibility to improve their situation. However, this idea began to falter as society recognized that factors like inheritance and luck affected people's economic situations. By the late 1960s, the notion that the system could be at fault for inadequate wages led to a new understanding of welfare. This resulted in support for programs aiding the working poor, exemplified by Nixon's Family Assistance Plan, which acknowledged the government's responsibility to assist both working and non-working people.
The Reforms
The reform period happened during the Johnson administration and included important changes in areas like poverty, welfare, education, law enforcement, and social services. Most of the changes, such as new laws and policies, were introduced then, but many of the immediate reforms came from executive actions rather than the legislation typically linked to the Great Society programs. For instance, government agencies were given the power to create mandatory standards for consumer safety and environmental protection, which deeply affected people and industries.
Some changes, like the disability compensation program, occurred quietly. While many more people began receiving disability benefits, the number of workers covered by the program didn't increase as much. Other changes in welfare programs during the 1960s happened as a result of changes in how things were done rather than through clear new policies. Court decisions were also very important during this time. Some famous court rulings changed rights in areas like juvenile justice and education quickly.
Even though the ideas and promises of social welfare programs began to change during Johnson's time, the real money and funding for these programs didn't start to help many people until around 1967-68 and fully took effect in the 1970s. For example, the Food Stamp program grew from about 424,000 people participating in 1965 to over 21 million by 1980. Similarly, more people started enrolling in job training programs after Johnson's presidency.
While the federal government did start major reforms, state and local governments were already working on similar changes. However, federal laws and court decisions are usually harder to undo than local decisions, which helped make these changes lasting on a national level, embedding them in law and judicial practices.