TWELVE: …AND OF DEAD WHITE MALES
Women
Columbia University has portraits of four notable mathematicians: Carl Gauss, Henri Poincaré, Emmy Noether, and Sonya Kovalevskaya. Even though there are two men and two women in the portraits, the history of significant figures shows a huge difference in representation. Only about 2% of important mathematicians are women. This low percentage is also seen across many other fields.
Historically, women have been blocked from participating in many professions due to laws and social pressures. It wasn't until the 19th and 20th centuries that women began to gain legal rights to work in various areas. Although there were more women included in scientific fields during the early to mid-20th century, they still made up only a small part of these fields, with around 5% in hard sciences and even lower percentages in mathematics and technology.
The few women who achieved high rankings in their fields were much fewer compared to men. Data shows that women had a lower chance of scoring high in achievements compared to their male counterparts.
The Dictionary of Scientific Biography (DoSB) is a helpful resource for understanding women's roles in science. However, even this source highlights how few women are recognized as significant figures, suggesting that many women’s contributions might not be fully acknowledged. Women included in this source often faced the same criteria that make it hard to be seen as significant figures, revealing a bias in how accomplishment is judged.
Books focused on women’s achievements often include those who contributed to science but didn’t get the same recognition as their male counterparts. Some of these women were teachers or the first to enter certain fields, showing that many made important contributions, but their work did not always lead them to be regarded as significant figures in history.
When we analyze both men’s and women's contributions, we see that even if we try to add more women based on different criteria, the overall representation does not change much. There are likely many important contributions from both genders that are still not recognized in academic records.
In the years after 1950, even with the changes in society, the number of Nobel Prizes given to women stayed low. In fact, the percentage of prizes awarded to women slightly declined. While literature saw some increase in the number of women, the participation of women in fields like visual arts and music remained steady and did not show much growth. The scientific fields also showed no upward trend in representation, indicating that even with progress, women still face challenges in being recognized for their achievements in important areas.
The Jews
Jews initially made significant contributions to the arts and sciences during the cultural highs of the Middle East and Moorish Spain. Between 1150 and 1300, of 626 notable scientists identified, 95 were Jewish, making up 15% of the total despite Jews representing only about 0.5% of the population. However, very few of these Jewish figures are known today, with only two, Montaigne and Spinoza, being recognized by the general public, and both had unique circumstances that set them apart from their Jewish heritage.
Throughout the early modern period until the end of the 18th century, Jews faced severe restrictions in accessing education and professions, which led to their sparse representation in European arts and sciences. They were legally excluded from civil society and suffered widespread social discrimination. Legal rights for Jews began to improve in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, first in the United States and later in various European countries, though discriminatory laws lingered for decades.
In Russia, the situation for Jews worsened, especially after the assassination of Alexander II in 1881, resulting in increased anti-Semitism and violence known as pogroms. Faced with harsh legal codes designed to diminish their population, many Russian Jews emigrated, primarily to the United States.
As the legal barriers were lifted between 1800 and 1950, the number of Jewish figures in the arts and sciences skyrocketed. From 1830 to 1870, 16 significant Jewish figures emerged, and from 1870 to 1910, that number increased to 40. By 1950, the total climbed almost threefold to 114 noteworthy Jewish individuals. This period demonstrated a remarkable rise in Jewish representation in various fields, excluding philosophy which saw even higher proportions.
By 1900, Jews represented an estimated 2.2% of the population in Europe and the United States, yet their contributions in the arts and sciences were disproportionately high. Between 1870 and 1950, out of 1,277 significant figures added to European and American inventories, at least 158 were Jewish, significantly more than expected from their population size. The most pronounced discrepancies in representation were seen in philosophy, mathematics, and physics.
An investigation into specific countries revealed that Jewish achievement could not solely be explained by the general productivity of those nations. For example, both Germany and France saw exceptionally high ratios of Jewish significant figures, indicating that these countries fostered an environment that encouraged Jewish success, despite Germany's later oppressive regime under the Nazis.
After 1950, educational and occupational opportunities for Jews improved even further, resulting in a marked increase in their accomplishments. In terms of Nobel Prizes, Jews won 29 in the first half of the century, making up 14% of the total. In the second half, they won 96, representing 29%. This upward trend suggests that earlier restrictions were hindering Jewish achievements more than previously realized. Consequently, ratios of Jewish winners in Nobel categories also increased, indicating that their potential contributions were limited prior to 1950.
Recent Trends for Non-Whites, Male and Otherwise
Recent trends show that the contributions of non-white individuals in various fields are gradually increasing, especially since 1950. While there were only a few significant figures prior to 1950, more individuals from ethnic backgrounds like Japanese and Chinese have started to gain recognition in the latter half of the 20th century. However, the representation of Africans, Indians, and Arabs remains low. Overall, while the past data shows little change before 1950, it suggests that future contributions from non-whites may grow even more.
Do We Have Any Idea Why?
The high success rate of Jews in various fields compared to the lower rate of women can be explained by both biological and environmental factors. These explanations can work separately or together, making it hard to separate their effects. Most of the current evidence for these differences is not strong, but in the future, genetic research will provide clearer answers, even if some arguments will continue.
Women still struggle to be represented in accomplishments despite legal improvements. The challenges they face are different from those Jews faced. For women, achieving success often means dealing with social stigma, potential marriage complications, and the struggle of balancing a career with motherhood. Even after gaining legal rights, women still face discrimination in education and jobs, where men often get more support and better pay. Because of these ongoing challenges, women's progress since legal changes has been much slower compared to Jewish men, leading to questions about whether deeper biological differences may also play a role.
Homosexuality and Human Accomplishment
Homosexuality is an interesting topic when thinking about human achievement, especially in the arts. Many famous figures in history, like Socrates, Michelangelo, and Shakespeare, are believed to have been homosexuals, but the evidence for some of these claims is uncertain. It is likely that some notable people kept their sexuality hidden so well that they aren't included in lists of recognized figures. Therefore, trying to measure how many accomplished individuals were homosexual might not be accurate.
Motherhood usually has a bigger impact on women's lives than fatherhood has on men. The experience of giving birth is often deeply tied to how women find meaning in life, which can lead them to prioritize becoming mothers over pursuing careers. Many women may avoid dedicating themselves fully to their professions because they do not want to risk their chances of being mothers. The emotional demands of parenting can be much greater for mothers than for fathers, which can limit their achievements in areas like the arts and sciences.
When it comes to differences in accomplishments between men and women, biological factors may be a reason. Throughout history, men have held the top positions in societies, and this may be partly due to biological traits that give men an advantage, such as being more aggressive. Even though men and women generally have similar average IQs, men tend to show greater variability in intelligence, with more men at both very high and very low levels. Additionally, men often perform better in mathematical and spatial skills, which may help explain the differences in achievements seen in the arts and other fields.
Evolutionary Explanations
Cognitive studies show that men and women tend to have different strengths in spatial skills. Women usually remember where things are located, while men are better at understanding new areas. This difference may relate to the roles men and women played during human evolution: men were hunters who needed to visualize distances and movements, while women were gatherers who had to recognize familiar plants.
In science, women often achieve more in concrete tasks rather than abstract ones. This trend can be seen in the work of famous female scientists like Marie Curie. The idea is that biological differences may help explain why there are achievements differences between genders, but it's still a subject of research.
Ashkenazi Jews, particularly those from Central and Eastern Europe, are known for their high accomplishments in various intellectual fields. A key factor in this success is the strong cultural value placed on education. Jewish families typically prioritize learning, often hiring tutors and having many books at home, which is linked to higher IQ scores in this group.
While Ashkenazi Jews tend to score higher on IQ tests, the reasons why are still debated. Some believe it's because their culture promotes intelligence, while others think genetic factors might also play a role. Historical challenges, like facing discrimination and adapting to new cultures, might have encouraged resourcefulness and higher intelligence among Jews. Strong family structures in Jewish communities have also fostered supportive environments for education, but whether these cultural traits are shaped by genetics or society is not yet certain and needs more research.
Women
Columbia University has portraits of four notable mathematicians: Carl Gauss, Henri Poincaré, Emmy Noether, and Sonya Kovalevskaya. Even though there are two men and two women in the portraits, the history of significant figures shows a huge difference in representation. Only about 2% of important mathematicians are women. This low percentage is also seen across many other fields.
Historically, women have been blocked from participating in many professions due to laws and social pressures. It wasn't until the 19th and 20th centuries that women began to gain legal rights to work in various areas. Although there were more women included in scientific fields during the early to mid-20th century, they still made up only a small part of these fields, with around 5% in hard sciences and even lower percentages in mathematics and technology.
The few women who achieved high rankings in their fields were much fewer compared to men. Data shows that women had a lower chance of scoring high in achievements compared to their male counterparts.
The Dictionary of Scientific Biography (DoSB) is a helpful resource for understanding women's roles in science. However, even this source highlights how few women are recognized as significant figures, suggesting that many women’s contributions might not be fully acknowledged. Women included in this source often faced the same criteria that make it hard to be seen as significant figures, revealing a bias in how accomplishment is judged.
Books focused on women’s achievements often include those who contributed to science but didn’t get the same recognition as their male counterparts. Some of these women were teachers or the first to enter certain fields, showing that many made important contributions, but their work did not always lead them to be regarded as significant figures in history.
When we analyze both men’s and women's contributions, we see that even if we try to add more women based on different criteria, the overall representation does not change much. There are likely many important contributions from both genders that are still not recognized in academic records.
In the years after 1950, even with the changes in society, the number of Nobel Prizes given to women stayed low. In fact, the percentage of prizes awarded to women slightly declined. While literature saw some increase in the number of women, the participation of women in fields like visual arts and music remained steady and did not show much growth. The scientific fields also showed no upward trend in representation, indicating that even with progress, women still face challenges in being recognized for their achievements in important areas.
The Jews
Jews initially made significant contributions to the arts and sciences during the cultural highs of the Middle East and Moorish Spain. Between 1150 and 1300, of 626 notable scientists identified, 95 were Jewish, making up 15% of the total despite Jews representing only about 0.5% of the population. However, very few of these Jewish figures are known today, with only two, Montaigne and Spinoza, being recognized by the general public, and both had unique circumstances that set them apart from their Jewish heritage.
Throughout the early modern period until the end of the 18th century, Jews faced severe restrictions in accessing education and professions, which led to their sparse representation in European arts and sciences. They were legally excluded from civil society and suffered widespread social discrimination. Legal rights for Jews began to improve in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, first in the United States and later in various European countries, though discriminatory laws lingered for decades.
In Russia, the situation for Jews worsened, especially after the assassination of Alexander II in 1881, resulting in increased anti-Semitism and violence known as pogroms. Faced with harsh legal codes designed to diminish their population, many Russian Jews emigrated, primarily to the United States.
As the legal barriers were lifted between 1800 and 1950, the number of Jewish figures in the arts and sciences skyrocketed. From 1830 to 1870, 16 significant Jewish figures emerged, and from 1870 to 1910, that number increased to 40. By 1950, the total climbed almost threefold to 114 noteworthy Jewish individuals. This period demonstrated a remarkable rise in Jewish representation in various fields, excluding philosophy which saw even higher proportions.
By 1900, Jews represented an estimated 2.2% of the population in Europe and the United States, yet their contributions in the arts and sciences were disproportionately high. Between 1870 and 1950, out of 1,277 significant figures added to European and American inventories, at least 158 were Jewish, significantly more than expected from their population size. The most pronounced discrepancies in representation were seen in philosophy, mathematics, and physics.
An investigation into specific countries revealed that Jewish achievement could not solely be explained by the general productivity of those nations. For example, both Germany and France saw exceptionally high ratios of Jewish significant figures, indicating that these countries fostered an environment that encouraged Jewish success, despite Germany's later oppressive regime under the Nazis.
After 1950, educational and occupational opportunities for Jews improved even further, resulting in a marked increase in their accomplishments. In terms of Nobel Prizes, Jews won 29 in the first half of the century, making up 14% of the total. In the second half, they won 96, representing 29%. This upward trend suggests that earlier restrictions were hindering Jewish achievements more than previously realized. Consequently, ratios of Jewish winners in Nobel categories also increased, indicating that their potential contributions were limited prior to 1950.
Recent Trends for Non-Whites, Male and Otherwise
Recent trends show that the contributions of non-white individuals in various fields are gradually increasing, especially since 1950. While there were only a few significant figures prior to 1950, more individuals from ethnic backgrounds like Japanese and Chinese have started to gain recognition in the latter half of the 20th century. However, the representation of Africans, Indians, and Arabs remains low. Overall, while the past data shows little change before 1950, it suggests that future contributions from non-whites may grow even more.
Do We Have Any Idea Why?
The high success rate of Jews in various fields compared to the lower rate of women can be explained by both biological and environmental factors. These explanations can work separately or together, making it hard to separate their effects. Most of the current evidence for these differences is not strong, but in the future, genetic research will provide clearer answers, even if some arguments will continue.
Women still struggle to be represented in accomplishments despite legal improvements. The challenges they face are different from those Jews faced. For women, achieving success often means dealing with social stigma, potential marriage complications, and the struggle of balancing a career with motherhood. Even after gaining legal rights, women still face discrimination in education and jobs, where men often get more support and better pay. Because of these ongoing challenges, women's progress since legal changes has been much slower compared to Jewish men, leading to questions about whether deeper biological differences may also play a role.
Homosexuality and Human Accomplishment
Homosexuality is an interesting topic when thinking about human achievement, especially in the arts. Many famous figures in history, like Socrates, Michelangelo, and Shakespeare, are believed to have been homosexuals, but the evidence for some of these claims is uncertain. It is likely that some notable people kept their sexuality hidden so well that they aren't included in lists of recognized figures. Therefore, trying to measure how many accomplished individuals were homosexual might not be accurate.
Motherhood usually has a bigger impact on women's lives than fatherhood has on men. The experience of giving birth is often deeply tied to how women find meaning in life, which can lead them to prioritize becoming mothers over pursuing careers. Many women may avoid dedicating themselves fully to their professions because they do not want to risk their chances of being mothers. The emotional demands of parenting can be much greater for mothers than for fathers, which can limit their achievements in areas like the arts and sciences.
When it comes to differences in accomplishments between men and women, biological factors may be a reason. Throughout history, men have held the top positions in societies, and this may be partly due to biological traits that give men an advantage, such as being more aggressive. Even though men and women generally have similar average IQs, men tend to show greater variability in intelligence, with more men at both very high and very low levels. Additionally, men often perform better in mathematical and spatial skills, which may help explain the differences in achievements seen in the arts and other fields.
Evolutionary Explanations
Cognitive studies show that men and women tend to have different strengths in spatial skills. Women usually remember where things are located, while men are better at understanding new areas. This difference may relate to the roles men and women played during human evolution: men were hunters who needed to visualize distances and movements, while women were gatherers who had to recognize familiar plants.
In science, women often achieve more in concrete tasks rather than abstract ones. This trend can be seen in the work of famous female scientists like Marie Curie. The idea is that biological differences may help explain why there are achievements differences between genders, but it's still a subject of research.
Ashkenazi Jews, particularly those from Central and Eastern Europe, are known for their high accomplishments in various intellectual fields. A key factor in this success is the strong cultural value placed on education. Jewish families typically prioritize learning, often hiring tutors and having many books at home, which is linked to higher IQ scores in this group.
While Ashkenazi Jews tend to score higher on IQ tests, the reasons why are still debated. Some believe it's because their culture promotes intelligence, while others think genetic factors might also play a role. Historical challenges, like facing discrimination and adapting to new cultures, might have encouraged resourcefulness and higher intelligence among Jews. Strong family structures in Jewish communities have also fostered supportive environments for education, but whether these cultural traits are shaped by genetics or society is not yet certain and needs more research.