THREE: A SENSE OF PLACE
Antonine Rome, 138–180
During the second century CE, the Roman Empire reached a peak under the reigns of Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius. Roman citizens, especially those who were free and wealthy, enjoyed lives filled with access to literature, philosophy, and art that rivals or outshines later societies. They could read works by famous historians like Thucydides and philosophers like Plato and Aristotle at their own leisure. Romans had over 25 public libraries, making it easy for them to borrow or buy books, filling their homes with impressive collections.
The art scene was also vibrant, with Romans admiring original works and fine copies of famous Greek sculptures and paintings. Although only a fraction of this art survives today, travel writers like Pausanias guided citizens through a rich cultural landscape, identifying must-see art. Roman critics believed that the visual art of their time was declining, yet they avidly consumed what was available. Iconic pieces like the Medici Venus showcased not just the wealth of individual collectors but also the Roman’s appreciation for art.
The Romans gave their citizens advanced infrastructure, including a vast network of highways that made travel efficient. These roads allowed quick military and commercial movement throughout the empire, which stretched over 3,700 miles across diverse territories. Alongside the roads, Roman engineers created impressive public works, including the Coliseum, which could seat about 50,000 people, and the immense Baths of Caracalla, a community facility featuring not just baths but also gardens, libraries, and recreation spots that were accessible for a small fee.
Despite these marvels, Roman life revealed peculiar gaps in certain areas. For example, although residents enjoyed public baths, they lacked the invention of soap, instead using a practice of scraping their skin with a strigil after bathing. Roman society mirrored modern life in some ways, such as living in apartment buildings, enjoying sports, and dining out. However, their medical care was limited. Though they had physicians available in cities and well-maintained public sanitation systems, they did not have public hospitals. Medical knowledge was fragmentary, lacking in accurate understanding of diseases and anatomy, which often led to ineffective treatments.
Roman science was similarly underdeveloped. Despite earlier Greek contributions to understanding the physical world, Roman advancements were minimal, often relying on incorrect theories and assumptions about nature. Notable scientists like Claudius Ptolemy produced influential works that dominated for centuries, but even these were fundamentally flawed.
When it came to education, Romans focused on practical knowledge over abstract thinking. Society valued public service and discouraged the pursuit of knowledge for its own sake, viewing philosophical study simply as a means to lead a proper life. Art was respected, but artists themselves were not esteemed, regarded more as laborers than creators. This disdain likely contributed to the lack of lasting artistic and scientific accomplishments from the Romans.
In spirituality, Romans were largely skeptical about their own traditional gods and rituals, with many viewing astrology as a more influential belief system. Although there were cults with deeper spiritual elements, the general atmosphere was one of cynicism and indifference toward genuine religious conviction.
On the political front, while the Romans demonstrated exceptional organizational skill in managing the vast empire, their political system had significant flaws. The Roman Republic, though effective for centuries, was oligarchical, with limited participation for the general populace. Additionally, the reliance on slavery created a harsh social structure where slaves could outnumber free citizens and lived under severe conditions, often facing brutal treatment and execution without recourse.
Overall, while Antonine Rome is seen as a time of prosperity and cultural richness, underlying issues with ignorance in health and science, an indifferent attitude toward artistic achievement, and problematic governance highlight a complex society. The Romans made remarkable advancements, but many aspects of their civilization reflect a lack of progress in critical areas that ultimately defined their legacy.
Hangzhou During the Song Dynasty, 960–1279
Classical China, especially during the Song Dynasty from 960 to 1279, was a sophisticated and advanced culture that differs greatly from how many people in the West view it. While some might picture it as an old-fashioned place, China actually excelled in many areas, especially during the Song period, which is often compared to a peak time in European culture.
Hangzhou, the capital of Song China, became important when an emperor escaping from nomadic invasions chose it as a safe place in 1127. At that time, it was a small city located between major trade routes, but it was known for its beauty, with a large lake and nearby mountains. The city was remarkably clean for its time; it had tall walls that were regularly maintained, and the streets and canals were kept tidy, far ahead of the hygiene standards in contemporary European cities.
By the 12th century, Hangzhou's population exceeded a million people, thanks to regular censuses that tracked every family. This urban area showed sharp contrasts between rich and poor, with affluent districts featuring wide, clean streets and large homes, while poorer sections had narrow, crowded houses. Despite the wealth gap, the city provided support for those in need through food warehouses and charities. However, the problem of abandoned infants due to financial struggles was also a sad reality.
The city offered many public facilities. There were numerous public baths, and there were grand venues for celebrations, showing the community's well-organized plans. The local government could handle large infrastructure projects, as shown by records of extensive bridge renovations.
Hangzhou had a bustling economy with many restaurants and tea houses offering a rich variety of food experiences. People could choose from a range of dishes reflective of the city's wealth. The market system was advanced, using paper money and banking systems that allowed for efficient transactions. An extensive network of roads and canals facilitated the movement of goods across the region.
During the Song Dynasty, agriculture was already specialized, focusing on products like tea, silk, and fish. The manufacturing sector was also advanced, with high production rates of paper and iron. The need for complex economic systems led to the development of management practices, including brokers and financial services.
In terms of science and invention, China was very creative, making significant discoveries such as gunpowder. Chinese mathematicians had advanced methods for calculations much earlier than similar discoveries in the West. They made important advancements in astronomy too, based on centuries of observations, which allowed them to accurately predict celestial events.
Chinese medicine was well-developed and effective for treating various health issues, often more advanced than Western medicine at that time. Procedures like acupuncture were widely practiced.
Culturally, the Song Dynasty had a strong focus on art and literature. Art was greatly valued across all society levels, leading to efforts in collecting and preserving it. Poetry and literature played vital roles in political and social life, with a well-established examination system that favored knowledge of literature and philosophy.
This examination system was crucial in selecting officials based on their abilities rather than family connections. It allowed for social mobility and involved intellectuals, ensuring that core cultural values were passed down through generations.
Religiously, this period in China was unique. Its major belief systems—Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism—did not focus on the existence of a god, yet the people engaged deeply with these philosophical ideas, emphasizing morality and harmony in society. The Confucian ethic highlighted kindness and moral leadership, promoting a governance style based on integrity rather than fear.
By the end of the Song Dynasty, Confucianism had evolved into a more organized system under Zhu Xi, who added metaphysical ideas that revitalized its concepts. This new version of Confucianism continued to shape Chinese society well into the 20th century, influencing the nation's values and ideas.
Samuel Johnson’s London, 1737–1784
In August 1768, the bark Endeavor set sail from Plymouth, commanded by James Cook, to observe the transit of Venus. This astronomical event, occurring when Venus crosses the Sun as seen from Earth, provided a unique chance to measure the distance from Earth to the Sun through a method known as parallax. The British Royal Society sought support for the expedition, emphasizing that it would be embarrassing for Britain to fall behind other nations in making these observations. Following these astronomical tasks, Cook was also instructed to explore the undiscovered continent known as Terra Australis Incognita.
The mission captured the intellectual spirit of 18th-century Europe, which was defined by a strong desire for knowledge and exploration. Innovations were ripe during this time, particularly in Britain, where James Watt was making significant advancements in steam engine technology, laying the groundwork for the Industrial Revolution. While regions outside London were centers of manufacturing and technical progress, London itself remained the heart of intellectual and cultural life, with a population in the 1730s nearing 700,000, making it the largest city in Europe aside from Paris.
The London of Samuel Johnson was characterized by a mix of luxury and squalor. Wealth and poverty coexisted in close quarters, creating a chaotic urban environment filled with various businesses, theatres, markets, and slums. The city was known for its poor sanitation, with no organized waste management, contributing to its foul smell and crowded streets. The policing system was inadequate, with watchmen known for their ineffectiveness, and public health was poor due to a lack of understanding of hygiene and medical practice. While there had been some advancements, like the establishment of the link between citrus fruit and scurvy prevention, many medical treatments were still rudimentary.
In terms of health, although plagues had previously plagued London, outbreaks had diminished significantly by the 18th century. This health improvement coincided with a reduction in famines, thanks to agricultural innovations which began to ease the harsh realities of earlier years. The arts thrived in London during this time, with a flourishing literary and musical scene. A significant number of businesses operated in the book trade, and large crowds attended exhibitions and theatre performances. Despite some disdain for contemporary artists, the sheer volume of cultural activity suggested a robust artistic presence.
The 18th century was also marked by the Enlightenment, influencing a generation of thinkers. Isaac Newton's work changed perceptions of the universe, introducing concepts of rationality and predictability that shifted the understanding of God and nature. John Locke's ideas on governance and human rights helped frame discussions on liberty and the role of government in serving the people. As England exemplified prosperity and freedoms unfamiliar on the continent, intellectuals from France were inspired and influenced by British thought.
The prominent thinkers of the Enlightenment, which included philosophers and writers from various disciplines, aimed to foster freedom in multiple facets of life. This period saw the emergence of significant economic theories from Adam Smith, whose work emphasized voluntary exchange and the economic benefits of competition.
The climate of intellectual growth during Johnson's time in London was vibrant, dominated by a network of accomplished individuals who often collaborated on various ideas and projects. Groups like The Club brought together notable figures from literature, politics, and science, reinforcing London’s status as a center of Enlightenment thought.
While the world was changing rapidly, Johnson’s London still demonstrated many of the limitations of previous societies. The infrastructure remained basic, and social inequalities persisted, with poor living conditions for the majority. The rights of women and the majority of men were still restricted. However, London had a unique dynamism and was on the cusp of significant changes, indicating a shift towards a future with greater societal transformations on the horizon.
Overall, while significant progress was being made in various fields, the changes were gradual. But the intellectual vigor, curiosity, and desire for change signified a period ripe for future advancements that would shape London and the world beyond it in the years to come.
Antonine Rome, 138–180
During the second century CE, the Roman Empire reached a peak under the reigns of Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius. Roman citizens, especially those who were free and wealthy, enjoyed lives filled with access to literature, philosophy, and art that rivals or outshines later societies. They could read works by famous historians like Thucydides and philosophers like Plato and Aristotle at their own leisure. Romans had over 25 public libraries, making it easy for them to borrow or buy books, filling their homes with impressive collections.
The art scene was also vibrant, with Romans admiring original works and fine copies of famous Greek sculptures and paintings. Although only a fraction of this art survives today, travel writers like Pausanias guided citizens through a rich cultural landscape, identifying must-see art. Roman critics believed that the visual art of their time was declining, yet they avidly consumed what was available. Iconic pieces like the Medici Venus showcased not just the wealth of individual collectors but also the Roman’s appreciation for art.
The Romans gave their citizens advanced infrastructure, including a vast network of highways that made travel efficient. These roads allowed quick military and commercial movement throughout the empire, which stretched over 3,700 miles across diverse territories. Alongside the roads, Roman engineers created impressive public works, including the Coliseum, which could seat about 50,000 people, and the immense Baths of Caracalla, a community facility featuring not just baths but also gardens, libraries, and recreation spots that were accessible for a small fee.
Despite these marvels, Roman life revealed peculiar gaps in certain areas. For example, although residents enjoyed public baths, they lacked the invention of soap, instead using a practice of scraping their skin with a strigil after bathing. Roman society mirrored modern life in some ways, such as living in apartment buildings, enjoying sports, and dining out. However, their medical care was limited. Though they had physicians available in cities and well-maintained public sanitation systems, they did not have public hospitals. Medical knowledge was fragmentary, lacking in accurate understanding of diseases and anatomy, which often led to ineffective treatments.
Roman science was similarly underdeveloped. Despite earlier Greek contributions to understanding the physical world, Roman advancements were minimal, often relying on incorrect theories and assumptions about nature. Notable scientists like Claudius Ptolemy produced influential works that dominated for centuries, but even these were fundamentally flawed.
When it came to education, Romans focused on practical knowledge over abstract thinking. Society valued public service and discouraged the pursuit of knowledge for its own sake, viewing philosophical study simply as a means to lead a proper life. Art was respected, but artists themselves were not esteemed, regarded more as laborers than creators. This disdain likely contributed to the lack of lasting artistic and scientific accomplishments from the Romans.
In spirituality, Romans were largely skeptical about their own traditional gods and rituals, with many viewing astrology as a more influential belief system. Although there were cults with deeper spiritual elements, the general atmosphere was one of cynicism and indifference toward genuine religious conviction.
On the political front, while the Romans demonstrated exceptional organizational skill in managing the vast empire, their political system had significant flaws. The Roman Republic, though effective for centuries, was oligarchical, with limited participation for the general populace. Additionally, the reliance on slavery created a harsh social structure where slaves could outnumber free citizens and lived under severe conditions, often facing brutal treatment and execution without recourse.
Overall, while Antonine Rome is seen as a time of prosperity and cultural richness, underlying issues with ignorance in health and science, an indifferent attitude toward artistic achievement, and problematic governance highlight a complex society. The Romans made remarkable advancements, but many aspects of their civilization reflect a lack of progress in critical areas that ultimately defined their legacy.
Hangzhou During the Song Dynasty, 960–1279
Classical China, especially during the Song Dynasty from 960 to 1279, was a sophisticated and advanced culture that differs greatly from how many people in the West view it. While some might picture it as an old-fashioned place, China actually excelled in many areas, especially during the Song period, which is often compared to a peak time in European culture.
Hangzhou, the capital of Song China, became important when an emperor escaping from nomadic invasions chose it as a safe place in 1127. At that time, it was a small city located between major trade routes, but it was known for its beauty, with a large lake and nearby mountains. The city was remarkably clean for its time; it had tall walls that were regularly maintained, and the streets and canals were kept tidy, far ahead of the hygiene standards in contemporary European cities.
By the 12th century, Hangzhou's population exceeded a million people, thanks to regular censuses that tracked every family. This urban area showed sharp contrasts between rich and poor, with affluent districts featuring wide, clean streets and large homes, while poorer sections had narrow, crowded houses. Despite the wealth gap, the city provided support for those in need through food warehouses and charities. However, the problem of abandoned infants due to financial struggles was also a sad reality.
The city offered many public facilities. There were numerous public baths, and there were grand venues for celebrations, showing the community's well-organized plans. The local government could handle large infrastructure projects, as shown by records of extensive bridge renovations.
Hangzhou had a bustling economy with many restaurants and tea houses offering a rich variety of food experiences. People could choose from a range of dishes reflective of the city's wealth. The market system was advanced, using paper money and banking systems that allowed for efficient transactions. An extensive network of roads and canals facilitated the movement of goods across the region.
During the Song Dynasty, agriculture was already specialized, focusing on products like tea, silk, and fish. The manufacturing sector was also advanced, with high production rates of paper and iron. The need for complex economic systems led to the development of management practices, including brokers and financial services.
In terms of science and invention, China was very creative, making significant discoveries such as gunpowder. Chinese mathematicians had advanced methods for calculations much earlier than similar discoveries in the West. They made important advancements in astronomy too, based on centuries of observations, which allowed them to accurately predict celestial events.
Chinese medicine was well-developed and effective for treating various health issues, often more advanced than Western medicine at that time. Procedures like acupuncture were widely practiced.
Culturally, the Song Dynasty had a strong focus on art and literature. Art was greatly valued across all society levels, leading to efforts in collecting and preserving it. Poetry and literature played vital roles in political and social life, with a well-established examination system that favored knowledge of literature and philosophy.
This examination system was crucial in selecting officials based on their abilities rather than family connections. It allowed for social mobility and involved intellectuals, ensuring that core cultural values were passed down through generations.
Religiously, this period in China was unique. Its major belief systems—Confucianism, Daoism, and Buddhism—did not focus on the existence of a god, yet the people engaged deeply with these philosophical ideas, emphasizing morality and harmony in society. The Confucian ethic highlighted kindness and moral leadership, promoting a governance style based on integrity rather than fear.
By the end of the Song Dynasty, Confucianism had evolved into a more organized system under Zhu Xi, who added metaphysical ideas that revitalized its concepts. This new version of Confucianism continued to shape Chinese society well into the 20th century, influencing the nation's values and ideas.
Samuel Johnson’s London, 1737–1784
In August 1768, the bark Endeavor set sail from Plymouth, commanded by James Cook, to observe the transit of Venus. This astronomical event, occurring when Venus crosses the Sun as seen from Earth, provided a unique chance to measure the distance from Earth to the Sun through a method known as parallax. The British Royal Society sought support for the expedition, emphasizing that it would be embarrassing for Britain to fall behind other nations in making these observations. Following these astronomical tasks, Cook was also instructed to explore the undiscovered continent known as Terra Australis Incognita.
The mission captured the intellectual spirit of 18th-century Europe, which was defined by a strong desire for knowledge and exploration. Innovations were ripe during this time, particularly in Britain, where James Watt was making significant advancements in steam engine technology, laying the groundwork for the Industrial Revolution. While regions outside London were centers of manufacturing and technical progress, London itself remained the heart of intellectual and cultural life, with a population in the 1730s nearing 700,000, making it the largest city in Europe aside from Paris.
The London of Samuel Johnson was characterized by a mix of luxury and squalor. Wealth and poverty coexisted in close quarters, creating a chaotic urban environment filled with various businesses, theatres, markets, and slums. The city was known for its poor sanitation, with no organized waste management, contributing to its foul smell and crowded streets. The policing system was inadequate, with watchmen known for their ineffectiveness, and public health was poor due to a lack of understanding of hygiene and medical practice. While there had been some advancements, like the establishment of the link between citrus fruit and scurvy prevention, many medical treatments were still rudimentary.
In terms of health, although plagues had previously plagued London, outbreaks had diminished significantly by the 18th century. This health improvement coincided with a reduction in famines, thanks to agricultural innovations which began to ease the harsh realities of earlier years. The arts thrived in London during this time, with a flourishing literary and musical scene. A significant number of businesses operated in the book trade, and large crowds attended exhibitions and theatre performances. Despite some disdain for contemporary artists, the sheer volume of cultural activity suggested a robust artistic presence.
The 18th century was also marked by the Enlightenment, influencing a generation of thinkers. Isaac Newton's work changed perceptions of the universe, introducing concepts of rationality and predictability that shifted the understanding of God and nature. John Locke's ideas on governance and human rights helped frame discussions on liberty and the role of government in serving the people. As England exemplified prosperity and freedoms unfamiliar on the continent, intellectuals from France were inspired and influenced by British thought.
The prominent thinkers of the Enlightenment, which included philosophers and writers from various disciplines, aimed to foster freedom in multiple facets of life. This period saw the emergence of significant economic theories from Adam Smith, whose work emphasized voluntary exchange and the economic benefits of competition.
The climate of intellectual growth during Johnson's time in London was vibrant, dominated by a network of accomplished individuals who often collaborated on various ideas and projects. Groups like The Club brought together notable figures from literature, politics, and science, reinforcing London’s status as a center of Enlightenment thought.
While the world was changing rapidly, Johnson’s London still demonstrated many of the limitations of previous societies. The infrastructure remained basic, and social inequalities persisted, with poor living conditions for the majority. The rights of women and the majority of men were still restricted. However, London had a unique dynamism and was on the cusp of significant changes, indicating a shift towards a future with greater societal transformations on the horizon.
Overall, while significant progress was being made in various fields, the changes were gradual. But the intellectual vigor, curiosity, and desire for change signified a period ripe for future advancements that would shape London and the world beyond it in the years to come.