Human Accomplishment

The Top Twenties

Lists can show the top 20 individuals with the highest index scores in various fields, helping to compare their achievements. These rankings highlight significant figures beyond the most famous ones. However, specific ranks are not definitive, as they can change depending on the sources used. For example, two composers may have different standings based on how evaluation criteria are set.

Scores from different inventories should not be compared directly because each inventory looks at figures within its own cultural context. For instance, even if Western art has one standout artist, that doesn’t mean there are fewer excellent artists in Chinese art; it simply reflects the way the rankings are structured.

Moreover, cultural "ponds," or the creative environments, vary in size, affecting how individuals rank. The broader inventory for Western figures means that comparison with smaller inventories, like Japanese or Indian figures, isn't straightforward. Therefore, an individual might rank lower internationally while being the top figure in their own region. Visual charts show the top figures in philosophy, art, and science, using color codes to illustrate their varying levels of achievement.

Astronomy

Galileo is ranked first in astronomy for his groundbreaking use of the telescope, leading to key discoveries about celestial bodies. William Herschel, despite being less well-known, ranks third due to his impressive achievements, illustrating the theme of "System Builders Versus Brick Layers." Pierre-Simon Laplace ranks high for his contributions to mathematics in astronomy and theories about star formation. Notably, Edwin Hubble, ranked twelfth, revealed that Andromeda is a galaxy and showed that the universe is expanding, while George Ellery Hale, ranked fifteenth, made significant advancements in telescope technology and studied sunspots.

Biology

Biology is a large field with important contributions from different areas like botany, zoology, and genetics. Some famous biologists, like Pasteur, are more known for their work in medicine. Darwin and Aristotle are well-known for their roles in evolution. Lamarck had a wrong idea about evolution but helped start invertebrate zoology and came up with the term biology. Georges Cuvier made important contributions to comparative anatomy and classification. An important American in this field is Thomas Hunt Morgan, who helped us understand genes and chromosomes.

Chemistry

Lavoisier is recognized as the leading figure in chemistry due to his important contributions in theory, experimentation, and practice. His work established the law of conservation of matter and laid the groundwork for quantitative chemistry. Following him, other prominent chemists like Berzelius, Scheele, and Davy also made significant discoveries, especially as new techniques for isolating elements became available. While they are highly regarded, their rankings may be somewhat influenced by the timing of their discoveries, which allowed them to find multiple elements.

Earth Sciences

Earth sciences cover areas like geology, oceanography, and aeronomy, but they are less reliable in scientific studies because they get less attention compared to other fields. Despite a reliability score of .81, this lack of focus can lead to errors. There is a discussion about the importance of Charles Lyell and James Hutton. Hutton’s early work helped start geology and introduced the idea of uniformitarianism. On the other hand, Lyell’s later work laid the foundation for modern geology, which supports his higher ranking in the field.

Physics

Isaac Newton and Albert Einstein are closely matched in their contributions to physics, with Newton having a slight edge in scores. Galileo is also recognized for his achievements in the field. Ernest Rutherford, ranked third, made major discoveries including two types of uranium radiation, the nucleus of the atom, and the proton, along with creating the first controlled nuclear reaction. Michael Faraday, ranked fourth, is noted for discovering how changing magnetic forces can generate electricity and the laws of chemical reactions involving electric currents.

Mathematics

There is no clear agreement among historians about who is the greatest mathematician, as rankings can vary based on different criteria. Leonhard Euler is often at the top due to his high output of published work. If the ranking were based on genius, Carl Gauss might take first place because he discovered many important concepts but published less. Isaac Newton, known for his fame, ranks second when only considering his math achievements. Euclid may be the most influential, as he created a lasting standard geometry text by synthesizing previous knowledge.

Medicine

Determining whether achievements belong in medicine or biology has been challenging. Accomplishments are classified under medicine only if they relate to diseases' identification, causes, or treatment. For instance, discovering microorganisms falls under biology, but linking a microorganism to a disease is medicine. Notable figures include Louis Pasteur, who tops the list, and Robert Koch, who isolated germs causing diseases and improved public health practices. Sigmund Freud is recognized for his work on mental illnesses and anesthetics, while his psychoanalysis contributions are classified under psychology.

Technology

Thomas Edison is recognized as the most significant American inventor and is closely matched with James Watt, who revolutionized the steam engine. While Edison created numerous inventions, Watt's work focused on improving a single technology. Other important figures include Leonardo da Vinci, known for his ahead-of-his-time ideas but limited implementation; Christiaan Huygens, a polymath who improved timekeeping; Archimedes, famous for the screw pump and lever; and Marconi, known for wireless sound transmission. These figures illustrate a variety of innovations that shaped technology.

Combined Sciences

The graph illustrates the results of combining achievements in hard sciences, mathematics, medicine, and technology. It highlights the success of polymaths, as only five of the top 20 figures are from a single field. Notably, there are no representatives from the earth sciences in the top rankings, and only one figure from technology, primarily for his work in physics. Eight of the top 20 are from physics, which has been a dominant field, but biology has gained importance with significant advances in genetics and neuroscience since 1950.

Chinese Philosophy

Confucianism is a major influence in Chinese philosophy, with Confucius, Zhu Xi, and Mencius being key figures. While Mencius helped establish Confucianism as the state philosophy in the 4th century BC, Zhu Xi gained even more recognition in the 12th century for revitalizing Confucian thought. He also played a vital role in popularizing Mencius by including his work in "The Four Books," essential texts for education and civil service exams. Chinese philosophy has a continuous history up to 1950, unlike art and literature.

Indian Philosophy

Indian philosophy includes important figures, but notably lacks the author of the Upanishads, which is the foundational text of Hinduism. The Upanishads consist of 108 discourses that were passed down orally. The most significant philosopher is Sankara, who advanced metaphysical ideas within the Advaita Vedanta school and is central to modern Hinduism. Others like Nagarjuna, who started Mahayana Buddhism, and Ramanuja, who sought to enhance Hinduism’s connection to the physical world, follow. The Buddha is less emphasized due to Buddhism's secondary status to Hinduism in India.

Western Philosophy

Western philosophy is marked by a few key figures, with only 15 philosophers achieving high influence scores. Aristotle and Plato are notable figures, but the arrival of Kant represents a shift, as he expanded philosophical thought beyond previous traditions. Following Kant, philosophers like Hegel, Schopenhauer, and Nietzsche also made significant contributions in the 19th century. Some scoring anomalies exist, as Bertrand Russell's high score reflects his diverse roles, while political thinkers like Locke, Hobbes, and Rousseau were often considered less influential.

Western Music

The Western music inventory includes 16 sources to evaluate the rankings of classical composers, particularly Beethoven and Mozart, who are tied with scores of 100. Although Beethoven generally received more recognition in ten sources, after adjusting for outliers, Mozart narrowly took the lead. However, it was decided to keep both composers tied due to their close scores. Popular opinion often favors Mozart, Beethoven, and Bach with less recognition for Wagner, while experts view Wagner as highly respected, reflecting his strong index score.

Chinese Painting

Chinese painting has a long tradition of named artists, unlike sculpture and ceramics. The ranking of artists is complicated by the lack of authentic surviving works from early figures like Gu Kaizhi and Wu Daoxi. Gu Kaizhi, once underappreciated, gained fame much later, similar to Michelangelo's delayed recognition. The evaluation of Chinese artists spans from -800 to 1950, but reliable scores are only available up to the 18th century, as cultural activity declined until the 20th century's reforms.

Japanese Art

Japanese art includes important artists who made a big impact, even though it can be hard to connect works to them. The three main artists are Sesshu, a Zen monk from the late 15th century known for his monochrome ink paintings and later use of color; Sotatsu, who founded the Rimpa school in the early 17th century; and Korin, who followed Sotatsu in the early 18th century. There is a notable difference in rankings between Sotatsu and Koetsu, both important figures, but Sotatsu is generally seen as the better artist.

Western Art

Significant figures in Western art have been recognized from ancient Greece, but most focus is on artists after 1200 because there is less information about those from before this time. Michelangelo's influence is very strong, which makes it seem like he is the only important artist, but many others are ranked similarly if his influence is removed. Picasso is ranked just below Michelangelo, showing his important role in changing art styles in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, especially in moving away from classicism.

Arabic Literature

Arabic literature includes notable writers who wrote in Arabic or Persian until 1950, mainly focusing on Islamic literature before the 19th century. It faced two main restrictions: acting in dramas and writing realistic fiction were not allowed. This led to a strong focus on poetry, which became complex and rich in language. Al-Mutanabbi is seen as the greatest classical Arabic poet, followed by Abu Nawas, who wrote more controversial poetry. In contrast, al-Ma’arri lived a more reserved life, showing different viewpoints in Arabic literature.

Chinese Literature

The ranking of Chinese literature can change significantly based on whether philosophical classics are included. If included, Confucius would dominate the rankings, overshadowing other writers like Du Fu. The focus is instead on poets, dramatists, and essayists, excluding philosophers to better highlight the best non-philosophical writers. Du Fu, often unknown in the West, is considered one of the greatest poets, though the depth of Chinese poetry can be difficult to convey in translations. The inventory covers authors up to 1950, with scores for those active before the 18th century.

Indian Literature

Indian literature is primarily represented by three major figures: Kalidasa, Valmiki, and Vyasa, known for their contributions to poetry and epic storytelling. The influence of these authors is so strong that the next recognized writers, Asvaghosa and Dandin, have much lower scores. Interestingly, the major literary contributions in India appear to have ended by the 5th century, and much of the rich tradition of fables is anonymous. After a long decline, Indian literature saw a revival in the late 19th century, reaching new heights with Rabindranath Tagore, who won the Nobel Prize in 1913.

Japanese Literature

Japanese literature includes many important writers rather than just a few famous ones. Key figures are Basho, known as the greatest poet and master of haiku; Chikamatsu, famous for his plays in bunraku theatre; Murasaki Shikibu, who wrote The Tale of Genji, regarded as the best work of Japanese literature; and Saikaku, who wrote popular erotic stories and was known for his fast haikai writing. Japan had a smooth transition from the old order to a new one at the end of the 19th century, keeping its literary traditions alive.

Western Literature

Shakespeare is recognized as a leading figure in Western literature, along with other major authors like Goethe, Dante, Virgil, and Homer. Rankings of these writers also consider their influence on social and political issues, with Rousseau and Voltaire being important for both their fiction and nonfiction work. This connection between literature and society raises questions about the lack of diversity among top authors, as most are European males. These observations show important trends in the history of Western literature.

Why Them?

Michelangelo stands out among great artists, much like how notable philosophers and scientists have shaped their respective fields. Historians often emphasize certain figures like Michelangelo, Aristotle, and Einstein because they defined cultural concepts and principles that continue to resonate today. Confucius, Sankara, and Aristotle had a significant impact in their cultures, with Confucianism shaping ethics in China and Sankara influencing Indian philosophy. Although Plato, Aristotle's predecessor, contributed greatly, Aristotle's ideas on virtue and human nature have become central to Western culture, leading many to align with his views.

In the realm of the arts, prominent figures such as Michelangelo, Shakespeare, and Beethoven have achieved unprecedented levels of excellence that inspire awe. While they did not create entirely new genres, their masterpieces transcend ordinary creativity, prompting responses like, “How can a human being have done that?” This is especially true of Michelangelo's work on the Sistine Chapel, which amazed viewers with its grand compositions and technical mastery. Art historian Ernst Gombrich expressed difficulty in grasping how one person could undertake such an immense and complex project.

Shakespeare's plays evoke similar awe; they are seen as the pinnacle of human achievement in literature. Harold Bloom noted that grappling with Shakespeare's works leaves readers in a state of wonder. Many have shared experiences of initially resisting the impact of Shakespeare's profound writing, only to be captivated by the depth and complexity of his characters and themes.

In music, debates about the greatest composers often focus on figures like Mozart and Beethoven. Mozart, known for his prodigious talent from an early age, produced a vast array of exceptional works. Beethoven, meanwhile, is notable for pushing the boundaries of music, despite facing the challenge of deafness later in life. His hearing loss actually forced him to concentrate more on composing, leading to masterpieces that remain influential, such as the Ninth Symphony. Beethoven's ability to compose in silence highlights an extraordinary aspect of human creativity and genius.

While Western art tends to receive focused admiration, critics worldwide express similar amazement toward their cultural giants. For instance, Goethe's appreciation for Kalidasa's play "Shakuntala" demonstrates how profound artistic achievements can transcend cultural barriers.

The distinction between accomplishments in the arts and sciences is significant. Artistic achievements are unique creations, while scientific progress often involves discovering pre-existing truths about the universe. The real challenge in science comes from being the first to make a discovery; this creates situations where the importance of a scientist can be skewed by timing rather than originality. For example, Alexander Graham Bell is widely recognized for developing a telephone, whereas Elisha Gray, who filed a similar patent just after Bell, is often forgotten.

Charles Darwin's developments in the theory of evolution serve as another prominent example. Despite formulating ideas on natural selection before Alfred Russel Wallace, Darwin delayed publishing his theory, leading Wallace to publish similar findings independently. When they presented their work together, Darwin's priority was recognized, but it remains clear that Wallace would have likely made significant contributions regardless of Darwin's actions.

In contrast, great art entails a level of effort and skill, where master artists intentionally produce beauty and meaning. Scientific discoveries can happen through sheer luck, as evidenced by Alexander Fleming’s discovery of penicillin stemming from an accidental mold growth. His work showcased a combination of observation and chance, placing him in a position of fame due to an unexpected outcome.

Through this lens, artistic greatness derives from the unique execution of a vision, while scientific eminence is often tied to the significance of discoveries. The debate around figures like Copernicus and William Herschel illustrates this disparity. Copernicus is renowned for proposing a revolutionary theory of heliocentrism, while Herschel made numerous discoveries that laid the groundwork for modern astronomy, albeit with less public recognition.

Ranking these figures in science involves subjective considerations, as accomplishments differ in nature and impact. The choice depends on what constitutes a larger contribution—redefining the understanding of the universe or building upon existing knowledge. An approach that balances the weight of both scientific and historical perspectives would give a more nuanced view of eminence in scientific fields. By evaluating contributions based on history and events simultaneously, an inventory of scientific greatness can emerge, acknowledging the value of both types of achievements without giving undue preference to one over the other.

Two Types of Scientific Evidence as Measured by Two Types of Sources

There are two types of scientists: system builders and brick layers. System builders, like Hippocrates and Aristotle, significantly shaped their fields but left fewer lasting contributions. Leonardo da Vinci anticipated important technologies but had few notable inventions. In contrast, brick layers, such as William Herschel and Thomas Edison, made many specific achievements without developing major theoretical frameworks. The reasons these scientists are recognized vary; some outshine others despite fewer achievements due to their substantial impact on their disciplines. While the giants of science come in different personalities and backgrounds, they often operate at a level that many cannot fully understand. Acknowledging their uniqueness is important, as they represent the upper limits of human capability.